The Effects of Child Sexual Abuse Research Paper

The Effects of Child Sexual Abuse - Research Paper Example The National Center for Victims of Crime state that sexual abuse can include speaking sexual dialogue to a child, touching their genitals in any way, watching a child when they are naked (voyeurism), rape, including oral or other types of rape, and forcing a child to do sexual acts for performance in pornography or prostitution.This broad definition of sexual abuse gives a better understanding of how children are often exploited without anyone knowing.There is no specific type of person who becomes a child abuser. They can be men and women (though women do not abuse children as often as men), they can be any age, and usually, the perpetrator is in a position of trust (The National Center for Victims of Crime). Some children are victims of incest, which means that someone in their family is either related by blood or the two people have an emotional connection (The National Center for Victims of Crime). Crime statistics show that about 14% of men, who currently are in prison, are chil d sexual abuses. In addition, about 36% of women were abused as children. Child Help also states that 59% of children who have been sexually abused were more likely to be arrested when they are a teenager, 28% more apt to be arrested when they are adults, and they are 30% more likely to commit a violent crime. Children are also more likely to have a sexually transmitted disease as they grow older, and if they have parents who are also alcoholics, they may be more prone to being abused than if the parents do not use alcohol or drugs.

Feminism In England Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Feminism In England - Essay Example Feminist political activists support such issues as women suffrage, wage equivalency, and have power over reproduction. (O'NEILL, 1969) Feminism is not connected with any specific group, performance, or past occasion. Its foundation is the political understanding that there are rough power arrangements between groups, in conjunction with the faith that something should be done about it. Feminism has been described as a movement with many projects; there is not just one feminist view on everything, so not just one feminist legal theory. However, arguably feminist legal scholars have certain similar concerns. Although anthropologists suggest that many primitive societies were essentially matriarchal, historical evidence from the Roman era till the present time indicates that must legal systems have treated women in an unequal fashion in comparison with their male components. Feminists believe that until the recent past all writing on the social, political, economic, and other major issues affecting humanity have been done by males, from a male point of view and barring very few exceptions (e.g. J.S.Miller), do not reflect women's role in creating and shaping society. Male written works have created and perpetuated biases and injustices against womankind. Male's characteristics are take as the norm and female's characteristics as deviation from the norm. Instances can be quoted to show that the prevailing conceptions and applications of law continue to reinforce and perpetuate patriarchal power. Feminism arose to challenge to rectify these wrongs and the ground realities dictate that the struggle should go on. The 19th century English liberals were among the first jurists seriously to question the position of women in society. For example JS Mill questioned the traditional, to some extent religious view that women were inferior beings destined to obey th eir husbands. Then, towards the end of the century Marxist writers began also to question the way in which women were treated under the law and economically championing women as the oppressed clans. In Marxist eyes it is the male capitalist who is the villain. Women and workers are the oppressed and exploited victims. Modern writers such as Zaretsky attempted to show that male dominance was as much an evil as capitalist oppression (Dixon, 2001). Although most of the leaders of feminist movement were women, yet all women are not the supporters of feminism and not all feminists are women. A number of feminists dispute that men should not acquire positions of headship in the movement, but the majority believe or look for the support of men. The issue of Feminism in England has rose to alarming levels and needs to be addressed so that major revolutions by the women can be avoided. Feminism in England is totally different than that in America as it is based the rights of equality of women their fulfillment and their role in the prosperity of England. The media is playing a major role in influencing the role of women in England. It is portraying women as second class citizens and is

Organic Solar Cells History, Principles and Efficiency

Organic Solar Cells History, Principles and Efficiency Solar Cells Solar cells are cells or devices use for converting sunlight into electric cur ­rent (electricity) or voltage. They are also called photovoltaic cells (PV) or devices and the process of generating electricity from sunlight is called pho ­toelectric effect. Solar Energy conversion through photovoltaic effect can be achieved with many materials at different lifetimes. Over the years many research and development have been conducted in the area of solar energy (thin film applications)[1]-[3]. But most of these developments have been in inorganic solar cells with conventional silicon base solar cells dominating in the production of solar energy in the commercial market [4]-[5]. Silicon base cells for thin film application have enormous advantages like good absorp ­tion rate of sunlight, suitable band gap for photovoltaic applications, longer lifetimes and improving efficiency. But the process of silicon base cells gen ­eration of voltage is tedious and above all very expensive fo r the commercial market. Research for alternatives to silicon has been ongoing for some time now with some other inorganic materials like Copper Indium Gallium Sele ­nium (Cu-In-Ga-Se)[6], Cadmium Sulfide (CdS)[7], Lead Cadmium Sulfide (PbCdS)[8], etc. But some have similar production problems like the silicon and as well expensive. Others also are of dangerous elements which are not environmentally friendly (CdS, PbCdS, etc). Another alternative to silicon base cells in terms of thin film (solar cells) research for photovoltaic applica ­tion could be organic solar cells (also known as plastic solar cells)[9]. With this, photocurrents are generated from organic materials. In this review, brief history of organic solar cells is discussed, the basic principle of operation is outlined and some performance in terms of the materials absorption rate, efficiency, stability and degradation and comparison between organic solar cells and inorganic solar cells (silicon) are also discussed. Chapter 2 Organic Solar cells (Plastic Solar cells) The infancy of organic solar cells began in the late 1950s [10]. At this time, photoconductivity in some organic semiconductor cells (anthracene, chlorophyll) were measured with voltage of 1 V by some research groups[11] ­[12].They proposed that if a single layer PV cell is illuminated consisting of an organic layer, sandwich cell with low work function metal (aluminum, Al) and a conducting glass of high work function (indium tin oxide, ITO), photoconductivity will be observed. With this interesting result and less cost effective of these organic semiconductor cells and also a possibility of doping these materials to achieve more encouraging results caught up with many researchers in this field. The work done since has been unprecedented as shown in figure 2.1 on the next page. In the 1960s, semiconducting properties were observed in dyes partic ­ularly in methylene blue [13]. Efficiency of 10−5 % in sunlight conversion was reported in the early 1970s to an improvement of 1 % in the early 1980s [14]. This was achieved through an interesting phenomenon known as heterojunction[15]. This phenomenon is a surface between semiconduct ­ing materials of dissimilar layers. Photovoltaic devices were applied with heterojunction where donor-acceptor organic cells were tailored together. In recent years, photoconductivity has been measured in dyes and the dye so ­lar cells have progressively been improved for laboratory cells[16]. Currently power conversion efficiency of organic photovoltaics in single-junction devices is over 9 %[17] and that of multi-junction cell is over 12 %[18]. Some materials of organic solar cells are dyes and some polymers like origomers[19], dendrimers[20], liquid crystal materials[21] and self-assembled monolayers [22]. All these need to be prepared carefully to obtain optimum efficiency and stability[23] Figure 2.1: Number of publications is plotted against the year of publications. This shows the inception of organic solar cells and how much interest the field has generated among scientists and the commercial entities over the years. Years below 1990 saw less publication (1960 to 1970 -10 and 1980 to 1990  ­29) compared to the years in the figure. Principle of Operations. In recent time, organic solar cells are of different operations due to their usage. Similar to inorganic solar cells, organic solar cells can be used to convert sunlight into electricity with the aid of a semiconductor. The basic principle behind this operation is outline below: Most organic solar cells have very thin material layer either single or multi-layer where there is a strong absorption of light sandwich between two electrodes, an anode (A) and a cathode (C). The anode (usually indium tin oxide ITO) is transparent and has a high work function. The cathode (aluminum) is opaque and has a low work function. The material layer is usually a photosensitive organic semiconductor. When light of appropriate energy (sunlight) is incident on it, an electron is excited from the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) to a lower uncopied state called lowest uncopied molecular orbital (LUMO) leaving a hole in the HOMO. This leads to exciton formation. That is, there is a creation of an electron-hole pair which is strongly bounded together. As the electron stays at the LUMO, there is a loss in energy by the electron through thermal relaxation as the electron penetrates the energy band gap. The electron-hole pair diffuses in ­dependent of the electric field and are separated (exciton dissociation) at the interface between the donor state (HOMO) and the accepter state (LUMO). The electron is collected at one end of the electrode (cathode) and the hole at the other end of the electrode (anode) thereby generation photocurrent in the process. If the electron and the hole after separation do not reach the interface, their absorbed energies are dissipated out and no photocurrent is generated. Step by step principle is illustrated in pictorial form below: Figure 3.2: a) Light is incident on an electron (red). (b) Electron is excited from the HOMO to the LUMO creating a hole (black) at the HOMO. (c) Exciton formation of electronhole pair. (d) Diffusion of exciton independent of electric field. (e) Exciton dissociation. (f) Collection of charges. Chapter 4 Performance 4.1 Absorption of light. In organic solar cells, the thin organic semiconducting layer is responsible for light absorption. This layer has a valence band which is densed with electrons and a conduction band. These bands are separated by an energy gap. When the layer absorbs light, an excited state is created. This state is characterized by an energy gap. The energy gap is the energy difference between the higher energy state (LUMO) and the lower energy state (HOMO). It is usually of the range of (1.0 -4.0) eV[24] and it is determined as: Eg = ELUMO − EHOMO . (4.1) Where Eg is the energy gap in electron volts (eV), ELUMO is the energy at LUMO (higher energy state) and EHOMO is the energy at HOMO (lower energy state). The energy gap usually serves as an activation energy barrier. This acti ­vation energy barrier needs to be overcome before an electron is excited from the lower energy state to the higher energy state. The excited electron has energy greater than or equal to this activation energy barrier. This energy is determined as: h.c Ephoton = ≠¥ Eg . (4.2)ÃŽ »photon Where Ephoton is the energy of the incident photon (light), h is Plancks constant (6.626 Ãâ€"10−34 Js), c is speed of light (2.997 Ãâ€"108 ms−1) and ÃŽ »photon is wavelength of the photon (≈ (400 -700) nm). As the excited electron remains at the LUMO, a hole is created in the HOMO. The electron undergoes thermal relaxation as it remains at the LUMO and this result in loss of energy by the electron. This energy loss is compensated for as: El = Eelectron − Eg . (4.3) Where El is thermal energy loss of the electron, Eelectron is the energy of the electron at the LUMO and Eg is the energy gap. Figure 4.1: (a) Thin organic semiconductor layer (with both LUMO and HOMO) with energy gap (Eg). (b) Incident light of greater energy than the energy gap excites electron (red) from HOMO to LUMO. This creates a hole (black) at the HOMO (c) Energy lost by the electron through thermal relaxation. 4.2 Stability and Degradation In solar cell application, long operational lifetime performance is required. To achieve this, stability and degradation are few of the key important issues to look at in real-time application. Over the years, stability of organic solar cells has improved very much in terms of their power conversions[25]. This is clearly shown in the figure below: Ideally the advantages of organic solar cells with their low cost materi ­als, recyclable, easy production and production in large quantities, à ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡exibility and durability (low weight), stability should be optimum. These advantages somehow also affect the stability of the organic cells. The active layer (thin organic semiconducting layer) component which is a core component of the cells is sometimes prone to degradations. These degradations occur dur ­ing their production (printing in bulk quantities and rolling them together thereby introducing some mechanical properties which then affect the mor ­phology of the active layer) and also reactions from weathering (UV light, oxygen, water). Extensive work on photo stability of some organic solar cells (large number of polymers) has been investigated by Manceau et al[27]. Figure 4.2: Organic Photovoltaic (OPV) production with progression in years shown. The years below 2010 had lower production of OPVs (> 0.5 MW) [26]. Chapter 5 Comparism between organic solar cells and inorganic solar cells (Silicon base solar cells). Organic and inorganic solar cells serve similar applications but they interest ­ing differences in terms of how they are made. Organic solar cells are cheap in terms of materials, production and are recyclable, they have very thin solar cells with little energy in making them, they are à ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡exible, durable and have low weight, they are colourful and they have easy production and can be produced in large areas. But they have low efficiency and lifetime compared to silicon base solar cells. Inorganic solar cells are cost effective in terms of materials, production and are not recyclable, much energy is need to have thin layer cells, they are rigid and not durable, they are of dark grey materials with dark blue to black coat ­ing, they have complicated production and are difficult to produce in large areas. But they have good light absorption rate, better efficiency and longer lifetime. Chapter 6 Conclusion Organic solar cells can be alternative to silicon base solar cells with its in ­teresting applications. They can be fabricated into our day to day usage materials and equipment with low cost technology in serving their purpose. Efficiency and stability still remains areas that should be addressed in the future to optimally have good power conversions.

Coco Chanel Essay -- Fashion Designers Essays

Coco Chanel In his 1993 book, Creating Minds, Howard Gardner attempted to distinguish characteristics that were common to creative people. In doing so, he concluded that many factors were involved in the development of a creator. For instance, the relationship between the Individual, the Work, and Other People (i.e. family and colleagues) (Gardner 9) was elemental in predicting future successes. Likewise, part of his hypothesis focused around the fact that creators typically make their mark in one single genre. He divided the types of work that could be created into seven different areas: interpersonal, intrapersonal, visual/spatial, logical/mathematical, musical, verbal/linguistic, body kinesthetic (Gardner vii). Gardner's rubric for finding commonalties amongst creators, or those people who produce innovative, influential works in their particular domain, has become a highly regarded and widely used tool for identifying creative genius. Likewise, one key factors promoting creativity was the marginal status of the creator. Gardner briefly mentions the importance of the relationship between the creator and their society (Gardner 42). In my opinion, Gardner gives too little attention to the importance of one's marginal status. I intend to show, through the example of Coco Chanel, that marginality can have an imperative impact on the development of one's creativity. Therefore, I will fit Chanel into the prescribed rubric that Gardner outlined in his book, and show how her marginal status defined her as well as her work. Part One: The Personal History of Chanel Chanel was born in 1883, illegitimately (Charles-Roux 9/3) to a father that would soon desert her, and a mother who would die by the time she reached the age ... ... different perspective on things. Perhaps she was "creative" because she did not know how to be "traditional." Maybe what seemed normal to Chanel, what felt natural for her, was simply different from what was normal for others. In any case, I feel that Chanel's marginal status was the main catalyst for her success as a fashion designer. Gardner overlooked the degree of importance that should be attributed to a creator's marginality. For in the end, to create is to do something original, what has never been done before. And to do something unique should mean to be unique. And to be unique and creative means to be marginal. Bibliography Charles-Roux, Edmonde. Chanel and Her World. The Vendome Press: London. 1979. Gardner, Howard. Creating Minds. Basic Books: New York. 1993. Madsen, Axel. Chanel: A Woman of Her Own. Henry Holt and Co.: New York. 1990.

Montessori Quotes and Sensitive Periods

The sensorial materials â€Å"The senses, being explorers of the world, open the way to knowledge. Our apparatus for educating the senses offers the child a key to guide his explorations of the world, they cast a light upon it which makes visible to him more things in greater detail than he could see in the dark, or uneducated state. † The Absorbent Mind p 167, Chap 17 Montessori was very influenced by the work of Edouard Seguin. He specialised in working with mentally deficient children and had developed a series of exercises that helped to train the children's senses and to teach them the skills of everyday life.He also felt that the education systems of that time denied children the possibility to develop their individual potentials. â€Å"Respect for individuality†, he wrote, â€Å"is the first test of a teacher† and he contrasted it with â€Å"the violent sameness of most of education. † (Kramer, p 61, Chap 1). Montessori would also have been familiar with the work of Rousseau and Pestalozzi, both of whom emphasized the importance of the training of the senses. She started her career working with special needs children and had seen how effective the results of specific sense exercises were. Relevant materials: Practical Life Essay – MontessoriShe began to be curious about how working with such materials would effect normal children. Based on her knowledge of the earlier apparatus designed for this purpose, and on her observations of the children in her care, she began gradually to develop her own set of materials. It was always the spontaneous activities of the child that came first though, and the materials second. The need for order, exactness, self-correction and reflection – all were qualities that Montessori saw were needed in order for the children to develop as they should.When she saw that children were particularly drawn to certain activities she then concentrated on developing materials that would extend that interest. She carefully took each of the senses and thought how best she could help the children to clarify and expand their existing experiences. By isolating specific qualities in the materials and by grading each set in ever-refined serie s, she was able to give the children the ability to increasingly refine each of their senses. The sensorial materials comprise a series of objects which are grouped together according to some physical quality which they have, such as colour, shape, size, sound, texture, weight, temperature, and so forth. †¦ Every single group of objects represents the same quality but in different degrees; there is consequently a regular but gradual distinction between the various objects and, when this is possible, one that is mathematically fixed†¦ Every series of objects†¦ s graded so that there is a maximum and a minimum, which determines its limits, or which, more properly, are fixed by the use which a child makes of them. † The Discovery of Childhood p 100-101, Chap 6 Quotations â€Å"Our sensorial material provides a kind of guide to observation, for it classifies the impressions that each sense can receive: the colours, notes, noises, forms and sizes, touch-sensations, odors and tastes. This undoubtedly is also a form of culture, for it leads us to pay attention both to ourselves and to our surroundings. The Absorbent Mind, p 167, Chap 17 â€Å"To teach a child whose senses have been educated is quite a different thing from teaching one who has not had this help. Any object presented, any idea given, any invitation to observe, is greeted with interest, because the child is already sensitive to such tiny differences as those which occur between the forms of leaves, the colours of flowers, or the bodies of insects. Everything depends on being able to see and on taking an interest. It matters much more to have a prepared mind than to have a good teacher. † Ibid p 167, Chap 17 And if we look at the sensorial apparatus which is able to evoke such deep concentration (remarkable in very small children between the ages of three and four), there is no doubt that this apparatus may be regarded not only as a help to exploring the environment, but also to the development of the mathematical mind. † Ibid p 170, Chap 17 â€Å"In a pedagogical method which is experimental the education of the senses must undoubtedly assume the greatest importance. Experimental psychology also takes note of movements by means of sense measurements. † The Montessori Method p 168, Chap XII In order that an instrument shall attain such a pedagogical end, it is necessary that it shall not weary but shall divert the child. † Ibid p 169, Chap XII â€Å"The didactic material controls every error. The child proceeds to correct himself, doing this in various ways. † Ibid p 172, Chap XII quot;Indeed, it is precisely in these errors that the educational importance of the didactic material lies, and when the child with evident security places each piece in its proper place, he has outgrown the exercise, and this piece of material becomes useless to him. Ibid p 172, Chap XII â€Å"There is, therefore, no question here of teaching the ch ild the knowledge of the dimensions, through the medium of these pieces. Neither is it our aim that the child shall know how to use, without an error, the material presented to him, thus performing the exercises well†¦ Here instead is the work of the child, the auto-correction which acts, for the teacher must not interfere in the slightest way†¦ it is necessary that the pupil perfects himself through his own efforts. † Ibid p 173, Chap XII â€Å"Normal children repeat such exercises many times.This repetition varies according to the individual. † Ibid p 173, Chap XII â€Å"The education of the senses has, as its aim, the refinement of the differential perception of stimuli by means of repeated exercises. † Ibid p 174, Chap XII â€Å"Our didactic material renders auto-education possible, permits a methodical education of the senses. Not upon the ability of the teacher does such education rest, but upon the didactic system. This presents objects which, f irst, attract the spontaneous attention of the child, and, second, contain a rational gradation of stimuli. † Ibid p 176, Chap XII Experimental psychology has so far devoted its attention to perfecting the instruments by which the sensations are measured. No one has attempted the methodical preparation of the individual for the sensations. † Ibid p 216, Chap XIV â€Å"The stimuli, and not yet the reasons for things, attract his attention. This is, therefore, the time when we should methodically direct the sense stimuli, in such a way that the sensations which he receives shall develop in a rational way. This sense training will prepare the ordered foundation upon which he may build up a clear and strong mentality. † Ibid p 217, Chap XIV It is necessary to begin the education of the senses in the formative period, if we wish to perfect this sense development with the education which is to follow. The education of the senses should be begun methodically in infancy, and should continue during the entire period of instruction which is to prepare the individual for life in society. † Ibid p 222, Chap XIV â€Å"Aesthetic and moral education are closely related to this sensory education. Multiply the sensations, and develop the capacity of appreciating fine differences in stimuli, and we refine the sensitivity and multiply man's pleasures. Ibid p 223, Chap XIV â€Å"Beauty lies in harmony, not in contrast; and harmony is refinement; therefore, there must be a fineness of the senses if we are to appreciate harmony. † Ibid p 223, Chap XI â€Å"With the gradual emergence of knowledge and volition, it becomes imperative to establish some order and clarity within the mind and to distinguish what is essential from what is accidental. †¦ To satisfy this need, he should have an exact, scientific guide such as that which is to be found in our apparatus and exercises. † The Discovery of the Child p 100, Chap 6 Any object that we wis h to use for the education of the senses must necessarily present many different qualities such as weight, texture, colour, form, size and so forth. How are we to isolate from many qualities one single one so that attention may be focused on it? This is done by a series and its gradations; the objects are identical among themselves with exception of the variable quality which they possess. † Ibid p 101, Chap 6 â€Å"The perfection of this exercise consists in removing as far as possible all distracting factors.It enables a child to engage in an inner and external analysis that can help him acquire an orderly mind. † Ibid p 102, Chap 6 â€Å"A child is by his nature an avid explorer of his surroundings because he has not yet had the time or means of knowing them precisely. † Ibid p 102, Chap 6 â€Å"Every effort should be made to see that the materials offered to a child contain in themselves a control of error†¦ The control of error through the material mak es a child use his reason, critical faculty, and his ever increasing capacity for drawing distinctions.In this way a child's mind is conditioned to correct his errors even when these are not material or apparent to the senses. † Ibid p 103 Chap 6 â€Å"Another characteristic of the objects is that they are attractive. Colour, brightness and proportion are sought in everything that surrounds a child. † Ibid p 103, Chap 6 â€Å"Another characteristic of this material for a child's development is that it must lend itself to a child's activity. The ability of a thing to attract the interest of a child does not depend so much upon the quality of the thing itself as upon the opportunity that it affords the child for action. Ibid p 104, Chap 6 â€Å"Finally, there is another principle that is common to all the material devised for a child's education. It is one that has been little understood until now and yet is of the greatest importance, namely, that the material should b e limited in quantity. † Ibid p 104, Chap 6 â€Å"One should begin the process with a very few contrasting stimuli so that the child can later pass on to a large number of similar objects but with always finer and less perceptible differences. Ibid p 112, Chap 7 â€Å"In order to give an even more complete idea of the differences between objects, it is well to include identical objects along with those which are strongly contrasted. † Ibid p 113, Chap 7 â€Å"†¦ Montessori deliberately set about trying to help the child to make these abstractions more easily and more accurately. That is, in fact, one of the main purposes of the sensorial materials; each of which is designed to help the child's mind to focus on some particular quality†¦She has been able to do this by making use of the principle of the ‘isolation of stimulus'. † Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work p 161, Chap 7 â€Å"†¦ the function of the sensorial materials is not to presen t the child with new impressions (of size, shape, colour and so forth) but to bring order and system into the myriad impressions that he has already received and is still receiving. † Id p 161, Chap IX Study guide The Montessori Method – Chapter XII, XIV The Discovery of the Child – Chapter 6 Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work – Chapter 7 Journal articles

Food & Beverage Operations Management Essay

FOOD PRODUCTION It is a process of preparing food in which raw materials are transformed into ready-to-eat food products for human consumption in the home or in any food processing industries. Food production can be classified into various types which are: traditional, centralized, batch cooking, call order, Assembly cooking, sous-vide, cook-chill, cook-freeze. Traditional Cooking. It is the simple and fast way to cook food. This cooking is done mostly in clay pots as per our tradition. Cooking in clay pots maintains moisture, keeps food warm for hours and the flavor of the food is unique. Centralized. Centralized cooking is done in large kitchen units that have the capacity to cook up to 100,000 meals. This kitchen serves a set of schools, orphanages, etc†¦located around the unit. 3. Batch Cooking. In this, the cooking is done in large batches in advance to save time so that the work is done in speed on weekdays. 4. Call Order. It is produced specifically when someone requests the item so that the item can be made as per the desire of the customer. Most of the fast-food corners have adopted this method of cooking. 5. Assembly Cooking. It is also known as bulk cooking. It means cooking in advance which is then stored in the freezer for up to 2-3 days which can be cooked later and consume by the customers. It is a time-saving technique. 6. Sous-Vide. It is a method of cooking in which food is vacuum-sealed in a plastic pouch and placed in a water bath for longer than normal cooking times. 7. Cook-Chill. In this, the food is cooked and then chilled to 3 degrees C in a central kitchen. It preserves food for up to 4 days before it is reheated for eating. 8. Cook-Freeze. In this, the food is cooked and then frozen to -20 degrees C in a central kitchen. It preserves food for up to 8 weeks before it is reheated for eating. CITATION Loc l 2057 (Locus Assignments)Food and Beverage Service Systems. CITATION Sky l 2057 (Sky City Careers)There are mainly 5 categories of service which includes: 1. Table Service It is a style of food service where the diner sits at the table and the food is served by a waiter/waitress. This is the oldest form of service. This following service comes under this category: English Service French Service Silver Service American Service Russian Service Guerdon Service Snack Bar Service 2. Assisted Service In this category, the guest enters in the dining area and helps himself to the food from a buffet counter. This category of service includes only Buffet Service. 3. Self-Service In this type of service, the guest enters in the dining area, selects his own tray or from the food counter and carries food by himself to his seating place. This category includes Cafeteria Service. 4. Single Point Service In this category, the guest orders pay for his order and get served all at a single point. This following service comes under this category:- Take-Away Service Vending Machine Food Courts Kiosks 5. Specialized Service In this category, the guest is served at the place, which is not meant or designated for food & beverage service like guest rooms. This following service comes under this category:- Tray Service Grill Room Service Trolley Service Home-Delivery Lounge Service Room Service 1.2. DISCUSS FACTORS AFFECTING RECIPES AND MENUS FOR SPECIFIC SYSTEMS Factors affecting recipes and menus for specific systems are: Size of operation Objectives of the operation Quality of the operation Nature of the menu Quality of customers The budget of the customers Customer needs Availability of resources CITATION Loc l 2057 (Locus Assignments)1.3. Compare the cost and staffing implications for different systems. Self-service outlets and vending machines Costs implications -Food served is mostly made of readily available low-cost raw materials. Only minor storage requirements. Staff implications-Very low costs. Few or no kitchen staff at all. Service can be managed by one unskilled person. Cafeteria, pubs, bars and buffet services Costs implications- Low service costs. Food costs depending upon the business aims. Staff implications – Skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled kitchen and service staff. Fewer employees than table service restaurants. Restaurants(English and American table service) Costs implications – Ranging from low to high-quality production, material, and storage costs according to quality level of an outlet. Staff implications- Combining high-skilled and less-skilled assistants will help keep costs down. Restaurants (French and Russian table service), Gourmet restaurants, high-level event catering. Costs implications – High-quality raw materials, often seasonal ingredients. Staff implications – High-skilled kitchen and service staff. CITATION Nel l 2057 (Nelson College London)1.4. Justify the suitability of systems for particular food and beverage outlets. IN-FLIGHT CATERING CITATION runs l 2057 (RUS)TRAY SERVICE is done in airlines because of the following factors:- There is no place for the kitchen in flights. It is easy to serve. It is more hygienic. It takes less effort by the service staff. There are disposable utensils which are easy to clear. TASK 2; 2.1Discuss the use of financial statements in food and beverage operations. 2.2Demonstrate the use of cost and pricing processes. 2.3Analyze the purchasing processes. SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT RECORD SHEET Programme Pearson BTEC Level 5 HND in Hospitality Management Learner Name Keerti Krishna Ratnala Assessor Name Mr. Osden Dias Unit No. & Title Unit 5: Food & Beverage Operations Management. Target Learning Aims Assignment No. & Title To understand different food & beverage production and service systems with financial controls used in food & beverage operations. Issue Date Interim Submission Date Final Submission Date Target criteria Criteria Achieved Final Assessment Comments Summative comments Resubmission authorization* Resubmission Date: * All resubmissions must be authorized. Only 1 resubmission is possible per assignment. Assessor Signature Date: Learner comments Learner Signature sd1719hndh_keerti@ragc.in Date: INTERNAL VERIFICATION – ASSESSMENT DECISIONS Programme title Pearson BTEC Level 5 HND in Hospitality Management Assessor Mr. Osden Dias Internal Verifier Unit(s) Unit 5: Food & Beverage Operations Management. Assignment title To understand different food & beverage production and service systems with financial controls used in food & beverage operations. Learner’s name Keerti Krishna Ratnala List which assessment and grading criteria the assessor has awarded. Pass Merit Distinction INTERNAL VERIFIER CHECKLIST Comments Do the assessment criteria awarded match those targeted by the assignment brief? Y/N Has the work been assessed accurately? Y/N Is the feedback to the learner: Constructive? Linked to relevant assessment and grading criteria? Identifying opportunities for improved performance? Agreeing actions? Y/N Does the assessment decision need amending? Y/N Assessor signature Date Internal Verifier signature Date Lead Internal Verifier signature (if required) Date Confirm action completed Remedial action is taken Assessor signature Date Internal Verifier signature Date Lead Internal Verifier signature (if required) Date

How to break news to employees, Training Journal - Emphasis

How to break news to employees, Training Journal How to break news to employees, Training Journal Whether the message is good, bad or indifferent; now is no time for silence, says Rob Ashton. During the ancient wars, if you wanted to deliver a message you hired a messenger to hand over the scroll personally. But approaching enemy lines to pass on bad news was a high-risk job. The bearer of bad tidings is never popular and it wasnt unusual for the messenger to be killed out of rage. Delivering any news can be fraught with difficulties because you never know how the receivers will interpret it. But imparting news of recession-prompted change can place you right in the firing line. With the credit crunch still in full swing, workers have got used to a daily, media-delivered diet of layoffs, profit freefalls and horror stories of homeless executives living out of their briefcases. A climate of fear has spread throughout the business world. And many people have adopted the mantra that change is, quite literally, the enemy. But failing to update your team is a costly strategy. Employees are likely to become demotivated if they feel theyre out of the corporate loop. If a team cant turn to management when times get tough, they quickly begin to wonder if anyone is at the helm. The uncertainty may cause the best employees to submit their CVs to rival firms while others ride out the storm, vowing to jump ship once the outlook improves. The Association of Communicators in Business (CiB) have echoed this sentiment. They warned that organisations should redouble their internal communications efforts during uncertain economic times rather than putting them on the backburner. Broaching sensitive topics is never easy. But understanding your colleagues is to key to communicating effectively with them. Never be afraid to address the real issues, but communicate them in a style and manner that they will positively respond to. Whether the news is good, bad or indifferent, its got to be shared. Creating a culture of open communication, free of management speak, can make all the difference to company morale. Studies have shown that companies with high employee engagement levels have better financial performance. So, having an effective strategy for breaking news makes it more likely that youll emerge from the recession without nursing a lengthy corporate hangover. Communicating change Whatever industry you work in, the model for communicating change is the same. As soon as you know information, pass it on. Dont wait until you have every detail or your silence may breed distrust. And never communicate any information externally before youve told staff. Follow the six steps below to ensure that you are communicating strategically. 1) Explain the new direction In changing economic times, business goals have to be revised. Explain the direct impact of the recession on your industry and organisation and say what the firm will need to do to weather the storm. 2) Be honest and open Tell people about job or budget cuts as soon as possible, along with reasons and timescales. Having this open communication means that you need never worry about what youre telling people. 3) Create a vision Dont sugar-coat your message but paint a positive picture of the changes you are proposing. Be crystal clear about your message and its implications. 4) Keep communicating Keep up the information flow and make sure its two-way. Move quickly to correct any inaccurate information and make sure staff members fully understand the direction, vision and benefits of the news you are delivering. 5) Love the word change Energise the management team to make the word change the most positive word in the company. Explain to them the benefits of any changes and always associate positive emotional words with any changes. Constantly remind employees that change is not a one-off exercise. 6) Repeat the steps Changes will keep happening so repeat the steps as soon as any new information becomes available. Once people expect change, its a lot easier for them to deal with. The write way With up to 70 per cent of workplace communication taking place through writing, honing your writing skills can help you to break news with far more ease. By choosing your words wisely, you can help to calm your readers and energise them to embrace change. The first rule is to put people first. Remember that people act and react according to their own self-interest. So communicate news in terms of what employees want or what would benefit them, rather than focusing on the benefits to the organisation. Win over your readers by giving them information in the way they like to read it. For instance, you can still use your internal newsletter to explain the ins and outs of your corporate restructure, but make sure its format and style is appropriate to its readership. For example, if you know that the favourite magazines that your staff read are glossy celebrity weeklies such as Heat and Hello, you might want to create a question and answer type article or one that presents the information in bite size chunks. Information is much easier to swallow when its broken up. Just make sure that it still provides staff with the whole picture. Think of creative, interactive ways to communicate your news. The BBC internal communications team, for instance, uses Wikis. These two-way websites mean that as well as reading the content, employees can edit it and attach their own files. In addition, blogs and internet forums are a great way to share information. But if you feel a good old-fashioned report will say it best, make sure you include all of your recommendations or most important information at the beginning. No-one wants to wade through the corporate equivalent of War and Peace to get to the important stuff. Make sure that you translate information so that it is free from corporate speak. Leave phrases such as blue sky thinking and picking the low-hanging fruit well alone. Create rapport with your readers by using no-nonsense words and phrases that do exactly what they say on the tin. Simple is best. And dont be afraid to show your personality or inject life into your written communication. Your readers will thank you for it. Three steps to effective writing Before you put pen to paper, use the checklist below: Keep it short You may think that open, flowing communication needs to be wordy, but the opposite is true. Avoid flowery phrases and practise writing your sentences in the shortest, snappiest way. Aim for an average length of 15-20 words and stick to the rule of one sentence, one idea. Use active language Write We invested 130,000 in staff development last year, rather than last year an investment of 130,000 was made in staff development. The second version is livelier and easier to read because it says who before what. It also makes sure the company gets credit for the good things. Use verbs instead of nouns Make sentences shorter and easier to understand by choosing verbs over nouns We will consider proposals submitted by the end of July has more punch to it than proposals submitted by the end of July will be given consideration to. Email etiquette Email is best reserved for following up on face-to-face communication. If what you say affects peoples lives and jobs, allow a two-way dialogue to take place. Its also all too easy to send an email to the wrong person or dash off an abrupt angry message. If you wouldnt write it on a postcard, dont send it via email. Your email could end up being circulated far and wide with negative consequences. If youre just expanding on an already open dialogue, by all means send emails. But think carefully about what you put in the email subject box. Take inspiration from newspaper and magazine headlines and choose your words carefully. For instance, Now is no time for silence is much more effective than This months communication update. You can monitor who opens the emails, but its more difficult to measure how engaged people are with the contents. By honing your writing skills, you stand a better chance of connecting with your staff. 2009 Emphasis Training Limited, first British serial rights offered

25 Russian Words Used in English (and 25 More That Should Be)

25 Russian Words Used in English (and 25 More That Should Be) 25 Russian Words Used in English (and 25 More That Should Be) 25 Russian Words Used in English (and 25 More That Should Be) By Mark Nichol Many Russian words have been appropriated by the English language. Some, like mammoth and sable, are easily assumed to be from a more closely related language. Others were originally specific to Russian culture but can be applied to analogous Western concepts, such as a reference to an American politician retreating from Washington, DC, to his dacha, or to a comment about a troika of conspirators. Here is a list of well-known Russian words and their original meanings and later connotations, if any. Below that you’ll find another set, that one consisting of words known to few, if any, speakers of English who are not bilingual in Russian or familiar with Russian culture. The latter list is ripe for exploitation in English. (Try referring, for example, to an elite cohort as the nomenklatura or to a petty bureaucrat as a namestnik.) Either list can be mined for analogous meanings. Some require no annotation, while others should be introduced carefully in context or even glossed; which approach to take depends on the content and its audience. Familiar Russian Words (Absorbed into English) 1. Agitprop: artistic political propaganda, from a truncated form of the Russian forms of the words agitation and propaganda 2. Apparatchik: a Communist Party member and/or functionary, from the Russian form of the word apparatus 3. Babushka: in Russian, â€Å"old woman†; in English, a type of scarf commonly worn by babushkas 4. Beluga: a type of whale or sturgeon 5. Bolshevik: a revolutionary or radical, from name of the majority Communist faction in Tsarist Russia, ultimately from the Russian word for â€Å"majority† 6. Commissar: an official 7. Cossack: a Russian ethnic group associated in popular culture with military prowess and a nomadic society; the name, like the ethnic appellation Kazakh, derives from the Turkish word for â€Å"nomad† 8. Dacha: a country house 9. Duma: a legislative body 10. Glasnost: a policy of political openness and transparency, from the Russian word for â€Å"publicity† 11. Gulag: originally an acronym for a Soviet-era system of forced-labor camps; it now can refer to any repressive or coercive environment or situation 12. Intelligentsia: the intellectual elite of a society, from the English word intelligent 13. Kopeck: a Russian coin 14. Mammoth: a prehistoric mammal, and, by extension, a synonym for massive 15. Menshevik: the name of the minority Communist faction in Tsarist Russia, originally in power briefly after the Russian Revolution but defeated by the Bolsheviks 16. Perestroika: the Soviet-era system of reform, from the Russian word for â€Å"restructuring† 17. Pogrom: originally, violent persecution of Jews in Russia; now, any officially sanctioned attack on a particular group 18. Politburo: the Soviet-era primary source of government policy decisions, a truncation of the Russian forms of the words political and bureau 19. Ruble: the basic unit of Russian currency 20. Sable: a mammal related to the weasel whose sleek black coat was long prized as a clothing material, and, by extension, a synonym for black 21. Samizdat: prohibited literature produced clandestinely 22. Samovar: an urn for heating tea 23. Sputnik: a traveling companion; also, the name given to a series of Soviet-era satellites, the first objects launched into space 24. Taiga: the far northern coniferous forests of both Asia and North America, from a Turkish or Mongolian word 25. Troika: a carriage or sleigh pulled by three horses, or a triumvirate (a ruling or administrative trio) Unfamiliar Russian Words (Not Yet Absorbed into English) 26. Druzhina: a unit of bodyguards and elite troops 27. Glavlit: the Soviet-era government censorship agency 28. Izba: a log house 29. Knout: a whip used in punishment 30. Konyushy: an official responsible for horses used in ceremonies 31. Kulak: a well-off farmer 32. Lishenets: a disenfranchised group 33. Matryoshka: a set of Russian nesting dolls 34. Muzhik: a peasant 35. Namestnik: an administrator (from the Russian word for â€Å"deputy†) 36. Narkompros: a Soviet-era agency responsible for education and culture, later called the Ministry of Enlightening 37. Nomenklatura: the Soviet elite, holding prestigious government and industrial posts (from the Latin term nomenclature, â€Å"list of names†) 38. Okhrana: the Tsarist secret police 39: Oprichnik: Ivan the Terrible’s brutal bodyguards and henchmen 40. Prikaz: originally, a bureaucratic position; later, an administrative directive 41. Propiska: a Tsarist regulation requiring subjects to remain in their hometown 42. Rasputitsa: spring and fall periods in which, because of heavy snow or rain, unpaved roads are impassable (possibly related to the name of Rasputin) 43. Sambo: a form of martial arts 44. Silovik: the elite 45. Spetsnaz: special-forces soldiers 46. Tamizdat: prohibited literature produced outside the country 47. Tovarishch: a companion or fellow traveler; used as a direct form of address in the Soviet Union, equivalent to comrade 48. Ukase: a decree; refers specifically to a government proclamation or generically to an arbitrary command 49. Ushanka: a fur cap with ear flaps 50. Zek: an inmate Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Grammar Test 1Running Amok or Running Amuck?How Long Should a Synopsis Be?

Ancient Spartan Public Education

Ancient Spartan Public Education T. Rutherford Harley (The Public School of Sparta, Greece Rome, Vol. 3, No. 9 (May 1934) pp. 129-139.) uses Xenophons Polity of Lacedaemon, the Hellenica, and Plutarchs Lycurgus for evidence of the Spartan education system. The following is a summary of the relevant sections of his article with a few more recent references. Upbringing of Children to Age 7 A child deemed worth raising is given to its mother to be cared for until the age of 7, although during the day, it accompanies its father to the syssitia (dining clubs) where it sits on the floor picking up Spartan customs by osmosis. Lycurgus instituted the practice of appointing a state officer, the paidonomos, who puts children in school, supervises and punishes. Children are barefoot to encourage them to move swiftly, and they are encouraged to learn to withstand the elements by having only one outfit. Children are never satiated with food or fed fancy dishes. Schooling of 7-Year-Old Boys At the age of 7, the paidonomos organized the boys into divisions of about 60 each called ilae. These were groups of peers of the same age. Most of their time was spent in this company, according to Figueira. The ilae were under the supervision of an eiren (iren) aged about 20, at whose house the ilae ate. If the boys wanted more food, they went on hunts or raids. So seriously did the Lacedaemonian children go about their stealing, that a youth, having stolen a young fox and hid it under his coat, suffered it to tear out his very bowels with its teeth and claws, and died upon the place, rather than let it be seen.From Plutarchs Life of Lycurgus After dinner, the boys sing songs of war, history, and morality or the eiren quizzes them, training their memory, logic, and ability to speak laconically. The Iren, or under-master, used to stay a little with them after supper, and one of them he bade to sing a song, to another he put a question which required an advised and deliberate answer; for example, Who was the best man in the city? What he thought of such an action of such a man? They used them thus early to pass a right judgment upon persons and things, and to inform themselves of the abilities or defects of their countrymen. If they had not an answer ready to the question Who was a good or who an ill-reputed citizen, they were looked upon as of a dull and careless disposition, and to have little or no sense of virtue and honor; besides this, they were to give a good reason for what they said, and in as few words and as comprehensive as might be; he that failed of this, or answered not to the purpose, had his thumb bit by his master. Sometimes the Iren did this in the presence of the old men and magistrates, that they might see whether he punished them justly and in due measu re or not; and when he did amiss, they would not reprove him before the boys, but, when they were gone, he was called to an account and underwent correction, if he had run far into either of the extremes of indulgence or severity.From Plutarchs Life of Lycurgus Spartan Literacy It is not clear whether they learn to read. [For more on the issue of literacy in Sparta, see Whitley and Cartledge.] Physical Training The boys play ball games, ride, and swim. They sleep on reeds and suffer floggings silently, or they suffer again. Spartans study dance as a kind of gymnastic training for war dances as for wrestling. This was so central that Sparta was known as a dancing place from Homeric times. [For more on the importance of dancing in Sparta, see Dionysiac Elements in Spartan Cult Dances, by Soteroula Constantinidou. Phoenix, Vol. 52, No. 1/2. (Spring - Summer, 1998), pp. 15-30. ] Foster Sons Allowed in Spartan Schools Not only were the schools for the sons of the Spartiate, but also for foster sons. Xenophon, for instance, sent his two sons to Sparta for their education. Such students were called trophimoi. Even the sons of helots and perioikoi could be admitted, as syntrophoi or mothakes, but only if a Spartiate adopted them and paid their dues. If these did exceptionally well, they might later be enfranchised as Spartiates. Harley speculates that guilt may be a factor here because the helots and perioikoi often took in the children that the Spartiates had rejected at birth as unworthy of rearing. From Agoge to Syssitia and Krypteia At 16 the young men leave the agoge and join the syssitia, although they continue training so they can join the youth who become members of the Krypteia (Cryptia). Krypteia The passage from Plutarchs Life of Lycurgus: Hitherto I, for my part, see no sign of injustice or want of equity in the laws of Lycurgus, though some who admit them to be well contrived to make good soldiers, pronounce them defective in point of justice. The Cryptia, perhaps (if it were one of Lycurguss ordinances, as Aristotle says it was), Gave both him and Plato, too, this opinion alike of the lawgiver and his government. By this ordinance, the magistrates dispatched privately some of the ablest of the young men into the country, from time to time, armed only with their daggers, and taking a little necessary provision with them; in the daytime, they hid themselves in out-of-the-way places, and there lay close, but, in the night, issued out into the highways, and killed all the Helots they could light upon; sometimes they set upon them by day, as they were at work in the fields, and murdered them. As, also, Thucydides, in his history of the Peloponnesian war, tells us, that a good number of them, after being singled out for their bravery by the Spartans, garlanded, as enfranchised persons, and led about to all the temples in token of honors, shortly after disappeared all of a sudden, being about the number of two thousand; and no man either then or since could give an account how they came by their deaths. And Aristotle, in particular, adds, that the ephori, so soon as they were entered into their office, used to declare war against them, that they might be massacred without a breach of religion. Sources: The Public School of SpartaT. Rutherford HarleyGreece RomeVol. 3, No. 9 (May 1934) pp. 129-139.Cretan Laws and Cretan LiteracyJames WhitleyAmerican Journal of ArchaeologyVol. 101, No. 4. (Oct. 1997), pp. 635-661Literacy in the Spartan OligarchyPaul CartledgeJournal of Hellenic StudiesVol. 98, 1978 (1978), pp. 25-37.Mess Contributions and Subsistence at SpartaThomas J. FigueiraTransactions of the American Philological Association (1974-) Vol. 114, (1984), pp. 87-109

Business so Foreign Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business so Foreign - Essay Example This paper will briefly but sufficiently provide an explanation for this. China has long been dubbed as the sleeping giant. However, the past three decades saw its awakening as it experience unprecedented economic growth and development. From being a communist republic for a long time it had open its doors to globalization and new economic policies in 1979 (China 2005). This new economic system has paved the way for progress. Currently, China is the sixth largest economy in the world recording the highest growth in real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) at 9.5% during 2004. China's GDP was recorded at US$1.96 trillion in during the same year which is equivalent to 1/7 of the United States' economy. China is now known to be the "new economic giant" (Gulob, 2003). A small business trying to break into the foreign market can well establish its operation in China. As one of the recently emerging and developing economy, China poses various business opportunities. Simultaneous with the rise in its GDP is the increase in the country's per capita GDP. This, in turn indicates a higher income for individuals and more money to spend. A small business entity can take advantage of this rise in income by offering the Chinese market new and innovative products. Another reason why China is considered is its relatively lower wage rate. On the average, a Chinese gets $0.40 a day (Hennock 2002). This vast pool of cheap worker can be utilized to the advantage of a small entity as it does not have a large resource to cover high amount of expenses. This implies a huge cost savings for entrepreneurs to invest in other capital needed in their operations. Philippines The Philippines is one of the world's developing economies in the Southeast Asia. Economically, the performance of the country is not impressive due to the constant devaluation of its currency and economic unrest due to political issues (Philippines 2005). However, this country is a promising destination for a start-up business entity. Foreign investments are highly encouraged in the Philippines. In fact, the Bureau of Investments offers numerous incentives such as: income tax holidays; exemption from taxes and duties on imported spare parts; exemption from wharfage dues and export tax, duty, impost and fees; tax exemptions on breed and genetic materials; tax credits; and additional deductions from taxable income to foreign investors (Fiscal Incentives 2005). Another advantage in doing business in the Philippines is its cheap pool of skilled workers. The average wage rate in the country is $3-$6 a day (Manpower Costs 2005). However, the country boasts of its over a million secondary school graduates and 350,000 college graduates annually. The Philippine market is also distinct for its highly Westernized way of living. A large factor which contributed to this is the long period of colonization under the United States. Filipinos are known to have colonial mentality and are very "Americanized." This has a good implication for a small firm as this indicates a large acceptance and preference for foreign products. India India lags behind the economic giants Japan and China in the Asian continent. India is one of the world's largest markets in the world with a population of 1.1 billion. The country continues its economic development following the market-oriented reforms in 1991. A small business trying to

Research Notetaking Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Research Notetaking - Assignment Example to more readily irrigate land in Mexican territory- in 1904 the company excavated a more direct opening at a site a few miles south of the California/Mexico border† (Wiltshire, Gilbert and Rogers 2) Jackson relates that the roots of the Hoover Dam project stretch deep into a long-term goal by the private sector to secure the irrigation of the Imperial Valley in the southern section of California. These efforts can be traced back to the 1900’s, when such irrigation aims became central to the existence of the Colorado Development Company. The successful early efforts resulted in a large tract of the Imperial Valley being nicely irrigated. There were problems however with canal siltation, even when the valley was being successfully irrigated, so that the firm had to redouble its efforts building another canal on top of the original canal that tapped the Colorado River and connected the valley to it (Wiltshire, Gilbert and Rogers 2). â€Å"Constructed in the 1930s, the concrete arch-gravity structure was intended to prevent flooding as well as provide much-needed irrigation and hydroelectric power to arid regions of states like California and Arizona. It was originally known as Boulder Dam, but was renamed in 1947 in honor of Herbert Hoover, who as U.S. secretary of commerce and the 31st U.S. president proved instrumental in getting the dam built. At 726 feet high and 1,244 feet long, Hoover Dam was one of the largest man-made structures in the world at the time of its construction, and one of the worlds largest producers of hydroelectric power† (A&E Television Networks). The History Channel notes that the Hoover Dam was originally named Boulder Dam, but that in 1947 the dam was renamed to honor the late President Edgar Hoover. Hoover was also US Commerce Secretary, and it was Hoover who was credited with having done a substantial part of the work to erect the iconic structure to the benefit of the people of states like Arizona and California. For those states,

Analysis Of Buying Decision And Consumer Behavior Research Paper

Analysis Of Buying Decision And Consumer Behavior - Research Paper Example Outlooks are influenced by personality, learning, demographics, social forces, and perception (Holbrook, 1999). Marketers attempt to build favorable consumer outlooks toward their products/services. Outlooks embody sentiments toward a good originating from values, ideas, and beliefs. As a result, consumers form beliefs and ideas about products/services and their features. Outlooks reveal the decision whether to purchase a want or a need. One of the most prominent models of linking outlooks to consumer behavior and decision making is employed by the University of Michigan’s Survey Research Center (Michman et al., 2003). The purposes of consumer spending for expensive goods are examined. For instance, buyers are interviewed if they have a certain desire to make a purchase, a possible desire to purchase, an uncertain choice to purchase, or a certain objective not to purchase a new house equipment or car over a specific time period. Outlooks are normally very hard to alter, yet marketers may be capable of attaining the change in outlooks through open and effective communication, specifically if the perceptions of consumers about the product are inaccurate. The outlooks of consumers toward brands are relevant due to the fact that these outlooks do affect consumer choices and behavior. Change in outlooks requires transforming the motivational aspect linking the product/service to a specific class or occasion or altering perceptions about the products of competitors (Holbrook, 1999).

How Can Impoverished Countries with Weak Formal Legal Systems Deal Essay

How Can Impoverished Countries with Weak Formal Legal Systems Deal with a Past of Mass Human Rights Atrocities - Essay Example However, the prevailing economic, legal and political frameworks in these countries are major impediments to achievement of justice especially on human rights atrocities. This paper explores ways in which impoverished countries can deal with past injustices, with particular focus on human rights atrocities. In attempts to deal with the past human right atrocities, the impoverished countries have undertaken a rather unusual approach of forgiveness instead of punishing the perpetrators. Other countries forgive many of the alleged perpetrators and imposing punishment on few individuals considered most culpable of the atrocities. This form of addressing past injustices of human rights atrocities referred as â€Å"restorative justice† has become the most popular mechanism for the last four decades especially in developing countries. Several countries including Sierra Leone, South Africa, Rwanda, Ghana and Central African Republic in Africa have embarked and concluded restorative ju stice to address the past atrocities. Other notable countries in Africa include Nigeria, Morocco (Lyn and Kimberly 2004:2). Similarly restorative justice process has been undertaken in developed countries such as Northern Ireland. Establishment of truth and reconciliation commissions is the most commonly applied method of dealing with the past injustices in Africa. ... These include international humanitarian law, international tribunals, non governmental organizations and foreign military intervention to overthrow the regime responsible for mass killings (Benomar, 1993). According to Beckman and Butte(2008: p2), â€Å"international law comprises of principles and rules that are universally applied in dealing with the conduct of states and of international organizations in their relations with one another and with private individuals, global companies and minority groups.† The International Criminal Court a permanent international tribunal is one of the universal judicial organs established under the international law to arbitrate on the most serious crimes against humanity. These crimes include genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and aggression (Beckman and Butte, 2008: p3). Most impoverished countries are normally in transition to democratic governance and emerging from conflicts, which cause widespread violations of human rights . The International Criminal Court through many subsidiary global committees on human rights examines all these crimes and determines which falls within its jurisdiction. The perpetrators who bear the greatest responsibility for crimes against humanity are charged in the International Criminal Court (Gary, 2000). Currently, several prominent persons in several sub-Saharan Africa accused of crimes against humanity are facing charges in the international court. Some of the countries in which the international court is arbitrating include Sudan, where the current president is wanted for committing crimes against humanity in Darfur, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Kenya for the post election violence in 2008. In addition, individuals accused of committing transitional

Economic development in the United States from the Revolutionary War Essay

Economic development in the United States from the Revolutionary War to the Civil War - Essay Example In other words the paper describes the American economy from 1775 up to 1865. During the revolutionary war period, the British made attempts to crush down the American economy through blockading all the ports. However, with over 90 percent of the population practicing farming, it was not an easy task for the economy to be crushed. Thus, according to Atack and Passell (98-99), the economy of America during the revolutionary war period proved to be resilient and was able to sustain the war. The Congress and the most of the American states financed the war using various ways. At the time of declaration of American independence in 1776, the economies of the thirteen original states were stable. The adoption of the United States constitution in 1787 also facilitated the growth of America’s economy to large extents. The constitution for instance, stated that the entire nation was a common market, devoid of internal tariffs and taxes on interstate commerce. This greatly stimulated economic growth. The first secretary of the treasury, Alexander Hamilton championed a myriad of reforms that saw the US economy thrive (Rousseau, and Sylla 9). He established a strong national credit. This was based on taking over the incumbent state debts and adding them up to the old state debts into new securities which were in turn sold to the rich people. He also funded the state debts through tariffs imposed on imported goods as well as a high tax on whiskey. Hamilton succeeded in diversifying the American economy by ameliorating the manufacturing, banking and shipping sectors. Through his efforts, the first Bank of the United States was established in 1791.However, the bill for the establishment of the first Bank of the United States provided for a twenty year charter for the bank. This implies that, the charter was to be renewed in 1811. Even so, the Bank of the United States is credited for solving a plethora of monetary problems that had marred the United States

Political Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Political Systems - Essay Example Political system of Libya In accordance with the article â€Å"Libya is Bigger for EU than for US† published by European Affairs on the official website of the European Institute, â€Å"the revolt in Libya differs radically from the recent regime changes in neighboring Egypt† (Libya). The author considers that Libya has the largest degree of violence and transatlantic challenges. The Libyan leader Moammar Gaddafi is described as a ‘mad dog’, but still USA and EU have economic or business affairs with this country. If America tried to fight against Libyan repressive regime, EU has already established certain economic concerns. At first European countries and America neglected oppression of Libyans human rights, but currently the main political issues of cooperation with Libya are solved and the world’s society makes an attempt to pacify a bloodbath. Oppressions of Gaddafi and military forces directed on civilians are severely criticized in the modern world. Therefore it is relevant to establish a new regime in Libya and not to ‘squeeze’ current repressive process. ... Further on the article deals with considerations of potential risks for Europe and America. The main impact on Europe is seen in oil output of Libya and oil supply of the EU. Migration to European countries, especially to Italy is another challenge caused by current turmoil in Libya. Unlike Europe, America tries to pacify terroristic moods in this country and made an attempt to fight against it by military attacks in 1984. Thus the political leader of Libya is scared off by America, but Europe is on the starting point of conflicts with Libya. Consequently, on the background of challenging international relations with Libya, social turmoil is shown. Libyans do not want to be â€Å"rooted in tribalism which Gaddafi carefully preserved and nurtured as part of his technique of divide-and-rule in Libya† (Libya). Thus Libya is in a more unstable position than Egypt, where military force is the basic pillar of the country. Political system of Egypt In the article â€Å"Egypt and the   Middle East:  revolution  or evolution?† the political system of Egypt is also described on the background of current turmoil events. The repressive regime of Egypt made this nation to fight against repressive regime and to protest against ‘fake’ elections. Egyptian nation has been tired of oppression and tyranny. This revolt is a sign of nation’s evolution from scared off social subjects to individuals striving for independence and democracy. Egyptians want â€Å"freedom and justice for every Egyptian† (Egypt). The main emphasis in this article is made on a potential struggle of ME against high-speed development of China and India. The author suggests to make an attempt and to fight for developing of the country. Therefore there are

Economic development in the United States from the Revolutionary War Essay

Economic development in the United States from the Revolutionary War to the Civil War - Essay Example In other words the paper describes the American economy from 1775 up to 1865. During the revolutionary war period, the British made attempts to crush down the American economy through blockading all the ports. However, with over 90 percent of the population practicing farming, it was not an easy task for the economy to be crushed. Thus, according to Atack and Passell (98-99), the economy of America during the revolutionary war period proved to be resilient and was able to sustain the war. The Congress and the most of the American states financed the war using various ways. At the time of declaration of American independence in 1776, the economies of the thirteen original states were stable. The adoption of the United States constitution in 1787 also facilitated the growth of America’s economy to large extents. The constitution for instance, stated that the entire nation was a common market, devoid of internal tariffs and taxes on interstate commerce. This greatly stimulated economic growth. The first secretary of the treasury, Alexander Hamilton championed a myriad of reforms that saw the US economy thrive (Rousseau, and Sylla 9). He established a strong national credit. This was based on taking over the incumbent state debts and adding them up to the old state debts into new securities which were in turn sold to the rich people. He also funded the state debts through tariffs imposed on imported goods as well as a high tax on whiskey. Hamilton succeeded in diversifying the American economy by ameliorating the manufacturing, banking and shipping sectors. Through his efforts, the first Bank of the United States was established in 1791.However, the bill for the establishment of the first Bank of the United States provided for a twenty year charter for the bank. This implies that, the charter was to be renewed in 1811. Even so, the Bank of the United States is credited for solving a plethora of monetary problems that had marred the United States

The characters of The Divine Wind Essay Example for Free

The characters of The Divine Wind Essay In the novel The Divine Wind, written by Gary Disher, the characters have to make important choices. With every character in the novel their choices are not always good and in some cases effect other characters in the novel a bad way. Different reasons and circumstances compel different choices. To see whether the choices made where good ones, we need to take a look at each choice specifically. Ida chose to leave her family and husband so she could return back to her homeland where her heart still was. Ida was very unhappy in Broome, and she longed for her life back in England. All throughout the novel there was a visibleline between the differences of Ida, her family and the people of Broome. Ida simply did not fit in. Alice chooses to end her relationship with Carl after she sees his true colours. Carl wants Alice to be moulded into a station wife and Alice does not want to repeat the same mistake as her mother by trying to be changed by a loved one. Also if Alice was to stay with Carl, she wouldnt have been able to fulfil her dream of becoming an army nurse. One of the Consequences of Ida leaving was it had sent Michael in state and his hurt had surfaced. as a result, he decides to take the lugger boat out ealry, despite how bad the weather was. this bad choice of Mikes injured his son and caused the death of his trustworthy head pearler and friend Zeke. Afterwards Michael admitts that he had mad the wrong decision in taking out the lugger boat and he grows a guilty conscience. Hart is forced to make many choices throughout the novel. although some of his choices were not seen as good by the ones that he loves. for example when he dismisses Mitsy and sides with his mother even though he is in love with Mitsy. This was a bad choice as it caused friction between the two. Mitsy then chooses Hart to persue a relationship with which then turns sexual. When Mitsy decides to take her mother and leave from the Penroses housefor them to be interned this also causes heat between Mitsy and Hart. Although looking forward into the future its what could have saved Mitsy and Harts friendship. The characters in the Divine Wind are forced to make important decisions. Their choices shape theie lives and also have an influence on the lives around them. Often these choices that the characters make are later redemmed by actions.

External Factors Influencing Human Eating Behaviour

External Factors Influencing Human Eating Behaviour Svetlana Yakuncheva How do external factors influence human eating behaviour? There is an impressive amount of research that has been focused on understanding the factors that impact food choice. Unfortunately, much less investigation has been made in order to understand the factors that mediate the human eating behaviour. Recent evidence has shown that there is a strong correlation between the ambient eating environment and an increase in food consumption volume to a far greater degree than the majority of us might realise (Bell Pliner 2003; Caldwell Hibbert 2002; Gueguen Jacob 2007; Wansnik, 2004; Zampini Spence 2004, 2005). In addition, it has been found that taste perception of similar foods varied in the different eating atmospheres (Bellisle Dalix, 2001; Mela, 2001; Smith Ditschun, 2009). The enquiry question is a particular interest in modern society considering the dramatic rise of the obesity epidemic. According to Lyman (1999) one of the main driving factors of this epidemic is overconsumption of food. Wansnik (2004) suggests that an increase in consumption norms are governed by external cues such as size of food packages, restaurant portion size, serving aids, and the presence of distraction or other people during eating. To determine the link between eating environment and food behaviour, the following essay will critically examine the recent literature related to the cross-modal interaction between external factors impacting human eating patterns on the psychological and sensory system levels. The paper is focused to determine a degree of indirect influence of the external factors on what or even why people are eating and how the taste perception might be alter by the ambient environment. The paper is divided into three main sections: first, it will evaluate th e impact of packaging, serving aids, and lighting on food intake; second, it will examine the role of distractions that can alternate or mask the taste perception; and finally, it will highlight the role of social interaction, that might take place during eating, on the food consumption and perceived pleasantness. Recent data suggests that the food consumption norm is usually determined by the packaging and marketplace portion sizes that leads to the normal portion size distortion (Wansik, 2004; Wansik Kim, 2004; Smith Ditschun, 2009). Smith and Ditschun (2009) point out that food packaging and retail serving sizes have been almost doubled in size since the time they were first introduced into the market causing difficulties in estimating an appropriate portion size by consumers, and therefore, resulting in overeating. Moreover, they emphasized the role of utensils and dishware in consumption volume, for instance, it was observed that due to the vertical-horizontal illusion people consumed 30 percent more beverage from a short, wide glass as it appeared to hold less volume than a tall glass; the Delboeuf illusion, which is governed by the relative size of two circles, makes the same amount of food appears smaller on the bigger plate. The authors suggest that consumers must be aware about thi s influence in order to control caloric intake. However, the main weakness of these studies is the failure to describe the ways of nutrition education to the mass population. In 2004, Wansnik and Kim publisheda paperin whichhe emphasised that environmental cues from larger package size affected the food intake of food even if it was disagreeable. It has also been found that super-size packaging and larger portion size implicitly suggest larger consumption norms as people construe that it is an appropriate amount to consume regardless of hunger level. Wansnik (2004) argues that the strategy of Smith (2009) will have been successful as simply bringing the awareness to the consumer will not eliminate the problem of portion control. He recommends to remove large packages, dinnerware, and serving from everyday life to prevent overconsumption. Lighting is another factor in the eating environment that has been found to mediate human eating behaviour. People are found to be less self-conscious and insecure when the lights are low, hence, they tend to eat more than they otherwise would (Wansink, 2004). The first serious analyses of the correlation of light and food consumption emerged during the 1980s with Lyman (1983) concluded that warm and dimmed lightening (including candlelight) affected consumption volume, increased comfort and the degree of perceived pleasantness by the participants. This point is supported by Sommer (2009) who has reported that bright illumination decreases the duration of people stay in restaurant, while soft lightening causes people to linger and order an extra drink or unplanned dessert. However, one question that needs to be asked, is whether the light is paramount or secondary factor impacting food consumption and duration. The relationship between food intake and distractions such as television, music, movies, or reading has been widely investigated by Bellisle and Dalix (2001), Caldwell and Hibbert (2002), Gueguen and Jacob (2007), and Wansik (2004). For example, a controlled study conducted in 2001 illustrated that people who ate dinner while watching a detective movie consumed 15 percent more in comparison with those who had their meal in silence (Bellisle Dalix, 2001). Wansik (2004) states that distraction obscures one’s ability to control food intake by redirecting attention away from satiety signals resulting in extended meal duration and overeating. Many researches have suggestedthat music and background noise indirectly affect the gustatory properties of food causing the disguise of its taste and textural properties. Early experiment done by Vickers (1982) illustrated that the amplitude of sound resulting from the food consumption played a significant role in the evaluation of the crispness of food. Recent research, such as that conducted by Zampini and Spence (2004), demonstrated the strong correlation between the sound that arises from eating potato chips and the ratings of the crispness perceived by the participants. The earlier studies of sound influence on taste perception have not dealt with  food properties rather than crispness. It seems that Spence has understood that there might be much wider area for research in the field of sensory cross-modal interaction between sound and taste perception. In his thought experiment he has shown that carbonated water had been rated as more carbonated when the sound of carbonation was played to the participants during the experiment (Spence, 2005). Another recent observation studies conducted by North and Hargeaves (2006), Gueguen and Jacob (2007) examined the role of loud ambient noise (music) in a restaurant and duration of person’s meal. It had been found that loud, fast-tempo rhythms encouraged people to eat faster and spend less time in a restaurant as they felt discomforted and tensed. In addition, recent experiment by Caldwell and Hibbert (2012) found that soft music stimulated a longer duration of the meal, slower rate of eating, more pleasant feelings, and higher consumption of food and beverages as people are more likely to order an another drink or a dessert. Unfortunately, the main limitation of these studies is that none of them differentiated the participants based on their music tastes prior the experiment; hence, such explanations might overlook the fact that people have different music tastes. Suggestively, taste perception and amount of food eaten might vary depending on whether a person listens to their favourite or non-favourite music during eating. Recently, a significant amount of literature has been published on the impact of the social interaction on eating behaviour (Bell Pliner, 2003; Chaiken Pliner, 2009; Wansik, 2004). In 2004, Wansink published a paper in which he described how social cues governing an eating behaviour and food acceptability. First of all, the study has illustrated that people tend to observe and follow others consumption norm; and secondly, it was observed that dinning in a company of familiar and friendly people (such as family and friends) increases the amount and duration of meals. The following fact is supported by an experiments of Bell and Pliner (2003), Chaiken and Pliner (2009). According to them, eating with strangers suppresses food consumption and increases self-awareness similar to that of a first date or job interview. However, the main weakness of these studies is the failure to specify if the responce differs among obese and normal weight individuals. To conclude, the research up-to-date indicates that the environmental cues indirectly mediate food intake and have a significant impact on the taste. General evidence illustrated that physical eating environment governs human appetite on the deep psychological, physiological and sociological levels causing overeating, which in turn contributes to the weight gain and triggers the epidemic of obesity. The main external factors that influence food behaviour have been effectively identified by many researches, however, it has less effectively explained why they do so. Further work needs to be done to better understand the mechanism of human cross-modal sensory interactions between  the food acceptability, intake and intensity of perceived pleasantness, and hearing, vision, and social communication. A future study investigating how person’s food choices and taste perception might be enhanced by modifying the ambient eating environment would be beneficial for the general population, and especially, for food manufactures, restaurants businesses, and marketing companies. References Bell, R. Pliner, P. (2003). Time to eat: the relationship between the number of people eating and meal duration in three lunch settings. Appetite, 41, 215–218. doi:10.1016/S0195-6663(03)00109-0. Bellisle, F., Dalix, A. (2001). Cognitive restraint can be offset by distraction, leading to increased meal intake in women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 74, 197–200. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2008.04.012. Caldwell, C., Hibbert, S. (2012). The influence of music tempo and musical preference on restaurant patrons’ behaviour. Psychology Marketing, 19, 895–917. doi:10.1002/mar.10043 Chaiken, S., Pliner, P. (2009). Eating, social motives, and self-presentation in women and men. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 26, 240–254. doi: 0.1016/0022-1031(90)90037-M Gueguen, N., Jacob, C. (2007). Effect ofbackground musicon consumersbehaviour. European Journal of Scientific Research, 16, 268-272. doi:10.1080/02642069.2011.531125. Lyman, B. (1983). A psychology of food. More than a matter of taste. New York, The United States of America: Van Reinhold. Mela, D. (2001). Determinants of food choice: relationships with obesity and weight control. Obesity Research, 9, 249–255. doi:10.1038/oby.2001.127. 2001. North, A., Hargreaves, D. (2006). The effects of music on responses to a dining area. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24, 55–64. doi: 10.1006/jevp.1996.0005. Sommer, R. (2009). Personal space. The behavioural basis of design. New Jersey, The United States of America: Prentice-Hall Inc. Smith, J., Ditschun, T. (2009). Controlling satiety: how environmental factors influence food intake.Trends in Food Science Technology, 20, 271–277. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2009.03.009 Vickers, Z. (1982). Relationships of chewing sounds to judgments of crispness. Journal of Food Science, 47(1), 121-124. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1982.tb11041.x. Wansink, B., Kim, J. (2004). Bad popcorn in big buckets: portion size can influence intake as much as taste. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behaviour, 24, 242-245. doi:10.1016/s1499-4046(06)60278-9. Wansink, B. (2004). Environmental factors that increase the food intake and consumption volume of unknowing consumers.Annual Review of Nutrition,24, 455–79. doi:10.1146/annurev.nutr.24.012003.132140. Zampini, M., Spence, C. (2004). The role of auditory cues in modulating the perceived crispness and staleness of potato chips. Journal of Sensory Studies, 19(5), 347-363. doi:10.1111/j.1745-459x.2004.080403.x. Zampini, M., Spence, C. (2005). Modifying the multisensory perception of a carbonated beverage using auditory cues. Food Quality and Preference, 16(7), 632-641. doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2004.11.004.

Homosexual Parents: The Ongoing Struggle For A Family Essay -- gay marr

The Ongoing Struggle for a Family "The most important thing in a family is that all the people in it love each other.† This excerpt is from a children’s book, written by Leslea Newman, Called â€Å"Heather Has Two Mommies.† This story is intended to show kids that not everyone’s family is the same. Many reasons are given to dispute gay and lesbian parenting but all founded on some of the archaic beliefs that Hitler used to kill homosexuals during W.W.II, fear and prejudice! Although having children and being parents seems like a basic human right or choice, many people believe that the government should have the authority to discriminate who can are cannot have children, regardless of their parenting skills. Some say that it is unnatural for gay and lesbians to have children because they have to go to such extremes to have them (Oppos ..199). It is kind of ironic because it has become mainstream for heterosexual couples that are determined infertile to use artificial insemination, adoption, and even invitro-fertilization, and when one of these procedures is successful the couple is said to have had a miracle, while the gay or lesbian couple is said to be fanatical. Lesbian couples may use sperm banks, or they may become coparents with a gay couple that also wishes to have children. In these cases the child has 4 loving and nurturing parents instead of the standard 2. Another opposing view is...

The Four Key Steps In Hiring And Keeping Top People :: essays research papers

The Four Key Steps In Hiring And Keeping Top People â€Å"When you hire the best, the rest is easy!† We have heard this phrase many times, but how do we put this concept into action? We know that hiring the best people is vital to the success of your business, especially for fast growing businesses. And certainly, your customers have high service expectations. So†¦how do you hire and keep top people? Let’s start from the beginning. The job description: Often overlooked, the job description sets the tone for success when hiring new people. Start by making certain your job descriptions are accurate, up-to-date and reflect your expectations. This is an important step, as it ensures consistency in your hiring practices and says your company is well run. Tip From The Coach: During the initial interview, be certain to present the job description, so the applicant will have a clear picture of your expectations if your company does hire them. This also helps to generate a more comprehensive conversation regarding the position being offered. The interview game plan: Prepare a detailed interview game plan, to be used by each person doing the interviewing for your company. This game plan must include: how to evaluate a resume, sample questions to be asked during the interview process, a detailed presentation of compensation, how to do reference checks, and any final hiring details (i.e. company benefits, policy and procedures, etc.†¦). Tip From The Coach: In addition to the in-person interview, consider the use of written tests and/or assessments to aid in your hiring process. This is key to hiring top people and will help to establish performance standards when hiring new employees. Fast-track training: Develop a detailed training checklist for all newly hired employees. This should include: an orientation for the first day, a plan for the first week, an outline for the first month, and a recap of the first 90 days that includes expectations for their performance. Tip From The Coach: By building a thorough and consistent training program, you will quickly develop top performers for your company, a â€Å"win-win† for all. Grow and groom: To hire and keep top people, you must provide a career path to help your best people grow and to be groomed for additional responsibility. This starts in the hiring process, so consider if the person you are hiring has the skills for the current position and might also have the skills for a next level promotion.

Pengajaran berbantukan ICT melalui penerokaan

PENDAHULUAN1.1 PENGENALANMalaysia berusaha menerapkan Teknologi Maklumat dan Komunikasi ( ICT ) dalam pelbagai bidang seperti perniagaan, industri, komunikasi dan pendidikan untuk mengembang dan mengekalkan kemajuan negara ke arah sains dan teknologi berlandaskan Wawasan 2020. Pada tahun 2001, kerajaan telah mewartakan k-Ekonomi Master Plan. Ekoran itu, hasrat k-Ekonomi Master Plan dimanifestasikan dalam bentuk reformasi sistem pendidikan Malaysia dan lahirnya pelbagai usaha untuk meningkatkan penggunaan ICT seperti media elektronik berbentuk e-book dan e-Learning untuk menggantikan media pengajaran dan pembelajaran ( P & A ; P ) yang konvensional ( Chan, 2002 ) . Pengajaran berbantukan ICT melalui penerokaan sumber digital boleh membantu meningkatkan minat pelajar serta menjadikan proses P & A ; P lebih berkesan. Bagi menghadapi cabaran baru kesan daripada globalisasi, liberasi, pengantarabangsaan dan perkembangan ICT pada abad ke-21, Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia ( KPM ) menyediakan Pelan Induk Pembangunan Pendidikan ( PIPP ) 2006-2010 yang dapat melahirkan warganegara yang berilmu pengetahuan, celik ICT, berkemahiran dan berakhlak mulia. Matlamat pelan tersebut adalah untuk merapatkan jurang digital dengan menyediakan kemudahan ICT antara lokasi dan meningkatkan kemahiran ICT dalam kalangan guru dan pelajar ( PIPP 2006-2010, 2006 ) . Walaupun pelbagai usaha telah dilaksanakan untuk meningkatkan pengintegrasian ICT dalam P & A ; P, namun isu sejauhmana proses pendifusian memberi kesan kepada penerimaan dan pengintegrasian ICT masih dipersoalkan. Kesannya matlamat penggunaan ICT sebagai alat bantuan P & A ; P untuk membolehkan penyampaian sesuatu konsep dengan berkesan dan memudahkan pemahaman Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence pengajaran oleh pelajar tidak tercapai. Oleh itu, disertasi ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti dan mengkaji hubungan faktor-faktor yang perlu diberi penekanan semasa mendifusikan sesuatu inovasi ICT dengan penerimaan guru untuk mengintegrasikan inovasi ICT tersebut dalam P & A ; P.1.2 LATAR BELAKANG KAJIANPendifusian inovasi adalah teori tentang bagaimana sesuatu thought atau objek baru tersebar dapat diterima oleh individu yang disasarkan ( Rogers, 2003 ) . Teori ini diasaskan oleh Everett Rogers pada tahun 1964 melalui bukunya yang berjudul ‘Diffusion of Innovations ‘ . Konsep difusi didefinisikan sebagai satu proses yang menerangkan bagaimana sesuatu inovasi dikomunikasikan melalui pelbagai saluran media pada jangka Masa tertentu dalam sesebuah sistem sosial. Manakala inovasi pula didefinisikan sebagai sesuatu objek, amalan atau thought yang baru dan dicipta untuk mewujudkan keselesaan, kos efektif dan lebih berkesan ( Rogers, 2003 ) . Teori Pendifusian Inovasi Rogers menjelaskan terdapat beberapa faktor yang menentukan penerimaan sesuatu inovasi. Penerimaan seseorang individu terhadap inovasi yang diperkenalkan adalah tidak sama dan boleh dipengaruhi oleh ciri-ciri peribadi serta latar belakang individu itu sendiri ( Surry & A ; Ely, 2002 ) . Penubuhan Koridor Raya Multimedia ( MSC ) pada tahun 1996 dengan memberi penekanan kepada tujuh aplikasi utama iaitu kerajaan elektronik, tele-perubatan, sekolah bestari, kad pintar, pemasaran tanpa sempadan, kelompok penyelidikan dan pembangunan jaringan perusahaan sedunia merupakan sebahagian usaha kerajaan untuk mengukuhkan lagi penggunaan ICT di Malaysia. Pada tahun 1999, kerajaan telah melancarkan plan Sekolah Bestari dengan melibatkan 88 buah sekolah dan plan ini merupakan projek yang menjadi kesinambungan daripada penubuhan MSC. Seterusnya, pada tahun 2003 kerajaan telah melaksanakan plan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Sains dan Matematik dalam Bahasa Inggeris ( PPSMI ) bermula dengan Tahun 1, Tingkatan 1 dan Tingkatan 6 Rendah di seluruh negara. Beberapa strategi pelaksanaan PPSMI ialah menyediakan guru dengan latihan intensif Indonesian Inggeris, Kursus Orientasi Kurikulum, peralatan teknologi maklumat, latihan penggunaan ICT dan bahan perisian. Usaha yang diambil dalam pelaksananan plan PPSMI ialah menggalakkan guru untuk menggunakan bahan pengajaran yang menggabungkan elemen multimedia seperti sound, picture, grafik, teks dan animasi. Elemen-elemen multimedia ini dipercayai dapat membawa perubahan dalam cara pengajaran guru dalam bilik darjah dan menjadikan proses P & A ; P mata pelajaran Sains, Matematik dan Bahasa Inggeris lebih menarik dan berkesan ( Noor Azliza & A ; Lilia, 2002 ) . Oleh itu, penggunaan Multimedia dalam pendidikan merupakan satu keperluan dalam epoch teknologi maklumat dan komunikasi. Teknologi Multimedia dianggap sebagai edutainment ( education amusement ) dan Infotainment ( Information amusement ) ( Handwerker, 2001 ) . Multimedia merupakan rangsangan kepada perubahan dalam proses pengajaran berbanding dengan kaedah pengajaran konvensional ( Gayle & A ; Uma, 1996 ) . Di Malaysia, Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia telah mula sedar Akan kepentingan penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif ke atas persekitaran pembelajaran dalam bilik darjah. Pengajaran dengan berbantukan perisian kursus boleh berubah menjadi panduan atau wise man dengan maklum balas secara interaktif daripada hanya berfungsi sebagai pembekal maklumat asas dan pemahaman sahaja ( Lee, Cheung, & A ; Chen, 2005 ) . Dengan adanya teknologi multimedia kemungkinan akan wujud sekolah Mayan dan sekolah planetary bagi aplikasi jarak jauh ( Saade & A ; Bahli, 2005 ) . Mata pelajaran Matematik merupakan mata pelajaran yang wajib dipelajari oleh semua pelajar sekolah menengah. Matematik mengandungi topik-topik yang sukar difahami oleh pelajar kerana perkara yang ingin disampaikan adalah berbentuk abstrak. Perkaitan antara satu konsep dengan konsep yang lain menimbulkan kekeliruan dan menyebabkan pelajar sukar memahami konsep yang baru dan berbeza-beza dalam Matematik. Dalam keadaan ini, pendekatan pengajaran konvensional tidak dapat menarik minat dan merangsang proses pembelajaran. Kesannya pencapaian pelajar dalam mata pelajaran Matematik terjejas ( Mohd Salahuddin, 2006 ) . Menurut Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum ( PPK ) ( 2000 ) , penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif boleh membantu pelajar untuk menvisualisasi konsep Matematik yang abstrak dengan lebih berkesan. Selain itu, penggunaan perisian juga dapat membantu murid memodelkan masalah yang mereka terokai dengan lebih berkesan. Menurut Mohd Nizar ( 2007 ) , penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam pengajaran Matematik dapat menggalakkan penglibatan aktif pelajar dalam P & A ; P seterusnya meningkatkan prestasi pencapaian akademik mereka.1.3 PENYATAAN MASALAHKajian tentang pendifusian dan penerimaan inovasi telah dijalankan secara meluas dalam pelbagai bidang. Contohnya dalam bidang ekonomi ( Mukoyama, 2005 ) ; rangkaian sosial ( Alkemade & A ; Castaldi, 2005 ) ; imigran ( Kabbar & A ; Crump, 2006 ) ; perubatan ( Huskey, 2009 & A ; Kilmon & A ; Fagan, 2007 ) dan pendidikan ( Ismail & A ; Ann, 2006 ; Ndubisi, 2004 & A ; Richardson, 2007 ) . Kajian-kajian tentang pendifusian ini t elah menumpukan bagaimana sesuatu inovasi disebar dan diterima oleh pengguna, faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi penerimaan inovasi serta halangan-halangan yang dihadapi dalam pendifusian sesuatu inovasi. Justeru, kajian-kajian ini juga menjelaskan tentang kepentingan proses pendifusian dalam memastikan kejayaan atau kegagalan sesuatu inovasi. Inovasi ICT merupakan suatu inovasi yang membolehkan guru dan pelajar mengakses pelbagai maklumat tanpa batasan Masa dan tempat. Namun demikian, sebagaimana inovasi-inovasi lain adenosine deaminase kemungkinan inovasi ICT juga Akan diterima atau ditolak. Oleh itu, kejayaan pelaksanaan inovasi ICT banyak bergantung kepada keberkesanan proses pendifusian serta penerimaannya dalam P & A ; P. Pihak Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia menganggap ICT sebagai suatu alat yang dapat merevolusikan pembelajaran, memperkayakan kurikulum, memperkembangkan pedagogi dan meningkatkan penguasaan pelajar. Bagi memantapkan ICT dalam pendidikan, KPM telah membelanjakan RM580 juta untuk menyediakan pelbagai bahan teknologi untuk digunakan dalam P & A ; P, memberikan latihan kepada guru dan menyediakan kemudahan. Keputusan untuk menggunakan ICT dipengaruhi oleh pelbagai faktor seperti pengetahuan dan kemahiran guru, kemudahan dan kekangan di sekolah. Bagi tujuan membantu menyepadukan ICT dalam P & A ; P, guru-guru dibekalkan dengan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. KPM berharap penerimaan dan pengintegrasian perisian kursus yang berasaskan multimedia interaktif dapat membawa perubahan yang besar terutama daripada aspek kaedah pengajaran guru dan cara belajar pelajar ( KPM, 2001 ) . Perisian kursus multimedia interaktif mempunyai potensi untuk meningkatkan mutu P & A ; P di samping menyediakan capaian kepada maklumat dan menggalakkan interaksi antara pelajar melalui pelbagai aktiviti ( Roblyer & A ; Edwards, 2000 ) . Perisian kursus multimedia interaktif juga membolehkan parity pelajar memperoleh ilmu dan kemahiran-kemahiran menerusi pembelajaran kendiri. Kajian oleh Mohd Nizar ( 2007 ) dan Azizah ( 2006 ) menunjukkan bahawa perisian kursus multimedia interaktif berjaya meningkatkan pencapaian pelajar dan meningkatkan motivasi mereka terhadap mata pelajaran yang dipelajari. Penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif menjadikan mata pelajaran Matematik lebih menarik dengan adanya pelbagai teknik pengajaran dan elemen-elemen multimedia. Penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam mata pelajaran Matematik dapat melatih kemahiran penyelesaian masalah atau menjadi alternatif kepada pengajaran sesuatu topik yang sukar dikuasai oleh pelajar menerusi ka edah pengajaran yang sedia adenosine deaminase ( Ibrahim, Baharuddin & A ; Jamalludin, 2005 & A ; Nor Azan, Halimah & A ; Shahrul Azman, 2009 ) Walaupun pelbagai usaha telah dilakukan untuk memperkenalkan dan menggalakkan penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P, namun timbul persoalan sama adenosine deaminase guru bersedia untuk menerima dan menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif seperti yang diharapkan. Ini adalah kerana penerimaan dan penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P didapati masih berada pada tahap yang rendah ( Fong, 2006 ; Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum, 2006 ) . Ini disokong dengan dapatan kajian oleh Azizah ( 2006 ) yang mendapati penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam kalangan guru di Malaysia masih pada tahap yang rendah. Dapatan kajian ini, menunjukkan bahawa guru hanya menerima dan menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif sebagai sumber sokongan dalam P & A ; P. Kemampuan inovasi teknologi tersebut tidak digunakan sepenuhnya oleh guru ( Moersch, 1995 ) . Justeru, ini menggambarkan proses pendifusian inovasi perisian kursus m ultimedia interaktif adalah kurang berkesan. Oleh yang demikian, kajian ini adalah sangat perlu untuk mengenal pasti faktor-faktor pendifusian yang menjadi penyumbang kepada peningkatan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam kalangan guru. Menurut Sanders dan Morrison ( 2001 ) , terdapat tiga sebab yang memerlukan kajian tentang proses pendifusian dalam bidang teknologi pendidikan. Sebab pertama ialah kebanyakan ahli teknologi pendidikan kurang pengetahuan tentang mengapa produk mereka diterima atau sebaliknya. Drum sanders dan Morrison ( 2001 ) percaya bahawa kajian tentang pendifusian dapat membantu ahli teknologi pendidikan untuk memahami punca berlakunya keadaan tersebut. Manakala sebab yang kedua ialah bidang teknologi pendidikan tidak dapat dipisahkan dengan inovasi dan ahli teknologi pendidikan perlu mempunyai pengetahuan tentang proses pendifusian dan theoretical account pendifusian inovasi. Dengan itu, ahli teknologi pendidikan akan menjadi lebih bersedia untuk menghadapi penerima sesuatu inovasi. Akhir sekali, sebab yang ketiga ialah kajian tentang pendifusian dapat membantu untuk membina theoretical account pendifusian yang lebih sistematik. Surry dan Ely ( 2002 ) mendapati sikap pereka yang hanya menumpukan kepada pembangunan bahan teknologi yang menjadi punca kepada kurangnya penggunaan sesuatu teknologi dalam kalangan guru. Keadaan ini menyebabkan tidak adenosine deaminase jaminan untuk mendifusikan teknologi. Menurut Rogers ( 2003 ) , proses pendifusian adalah satu proses yang rumit dan dipengaruhi oleh banyak faktor. Kelebihan teknologi itu sendiri hanya merupakan satu faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan seseorang guru untuk menerima dan menggunakan sesuatu inovasi. Ciri-ciri seperti interaksi sosial yang kompleks dan faedah penggunaan juga mempengaruhi penerimaan sesuatu teknologi dan penggunaannya ( Rogers, 2003 ) . Dalam hal ini, Teori Pendifusian Inovasi boleh diaplikasikan untuk mencari penyelesaian kepada masalah kurangnya penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam proses P & A ; P. Kepercayaan guru terhadap kemampuan sesuatu kaedah atau bahan akan mempengaruhi keputusan guru untuk menerima dan mengaplikasikan kaedah atau bahan tersebut dalam P & A ; P ( Pajares, 2002 ) . Di samping itu, sikap bimbang dan kurang keyakinan terhadap diri sendiri untuk menguasai sesuatu teknologi juga akan menyebabkan guru kurang berminat untuk menerima sesuatu inovasi ICT. Justeru, pengalaman guru yang negatif semasa menggunakan teknologi mendorong guru untuk tidak menerima inovasi ICT yang baru ( Mohd Nizar, 2007 ) . Di samping itu, kekurangan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif yang berkualiti dan kesukaran mengendalikan perisian kursus juga menyebabkan guru menganggap bahawa penggunaan inovasi ICT dalam pengajaran pembelajaran tidak berkesan ( Sima, Jayakaran & A ; Roselan, 2009 ) . Seterusnya guru di sekolah menghadapi masalah kekurangan masa untuk mereka bentuk pelajaran yang melibatkan penggunaan inovasi ICT. Guru juga menghadapi masalah kekurangan sokongan dari segi sokon gan pihak pengurusan dan sokongan peralatan ICT untuk menerima dan mengintegrasikan inovasi ICT seperti yang disasarkan ( Mohammad, Jamalul Lail & A ; Mohd Izham. 2001 ) . Dalam konteks pendidikan di Malaysia, hanya terdapat beberapa kajian yang dijalankan tentang pendifusian dan penerimaan inovasi. Antaranya ialah kajian oleh Nor Aziah dan Ahmad Marzuki ( 2004 ) yang telah mengkaji tentang pendifusian dan penerimaan Sistem Pengurusan Pembelajaran dalam meningkatkan kualiti P & A ; P. Mereka mengkaji proses pendifusian Dari perspektif penerima dengan menggunakan variabel tingkah laku positif dan sikap terbuka guru untuk menerima inovasi tersebut. Kajian oleh Azwan, Abdul Ghani, Mohammad Zohir dan Abd. Rahman ( 2005 ) juga telah menggunakan perspektif penerima untuk mengkaji kesan efikasi kendiri guru Sejarah terhadap Pengajaran Berbantukan Teknologi Maklumat dan Komunikasi ( ICT ) sekolah menengah kebangsaan harian di negeri Perlis Indera Kayangan. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan terdapat hubungan antara efikasi kendiri dengan amalan pengajaran berbantukan ICT. Sima, Jayakaran dan Roselan ( 2009 ) pula telah mengkaji pendifusian dan pengintegrasian Pengajaran Berasaskan Web ( WBI ) dalam kalangan staf Fakulti Bahasa Inggeris di Universiti Putra Malaysia Dari perspektif inovasi. Pendifusian Pengajaran Berasaskan Web dikaji Dari aspek kelebihan relatif, kesesuaian, kesenangan mengguna, mudah untuk percubaan, visibleness dan consequence provability. Rodney, Michael dan Christina ( 2009 ) juga telah menggunakan perspektif inovasi dalam kajian mereka. Mereka telah mengkaji penerimaan inovasi perbincangan dalam talian dalam kalangan pensyarah Universiti Swinburne Kampus Sarawak dengan menggunakan Technology Acceptance Model ( 1986 ) . Selain itu, terdapat juga kajian-kajian yang menggunakan dua perspektif untuk mengkaji pendifusian dan penerimaan inovasi teknologi. Contohnya, Mohd. Sarif ( 1998 ) yang telah mengkaji tentang faktor-faktor yang menjadi penghalang kepada pendifusian teknologi pendidikan dalam kalangan guru Sekolah Menengah Sains di pantai Tamerlane Semenanjung Malaysia. Kajian ini telah menggabungkan variabel-variabel Dari perspektif penerima dan perspektif persekitaran iaitu individu, birokratik, ekonomi dan logistik. Manakala Azizah ( 2006 ) pula telah menggabungkan perspektif inovasi dan perspektif persekitaran dalam kajiannya. Azizah telah mengkaji tahap penerimaan dan penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif Sekolah Bestari dalam kalangan guru dan pelajar sekolah di Malaysia serta halangan-halangan yang dihadapi dalam penerimaan inovasi tersebut. Ini menunjukkan dalam kajian-kajian Lepas parity penyelidik hanya menumpukan kepada faktor-faktor daripada perpektif tertentu sahaja, sama adenosine deaminase Dari perspektif penerima, inovasi atau persekitaran. Tetapi kajian ini akan menggabungkan ketiga-tiga perspektif tersebut. Walaupun terdapat banyak faktor yang boleh mempengaruhi penerimaan sesuatu inovasi, tetapi dalam kajian ini enam faktor yang menjadi dominan dalam ketiga-tiga perspektif tersebut dipilih dan dinamakan sebagai faktor-faktor pendifusian ( pengalaman dan efikasi kendiri Dari perspektif penerima, kelebihan relatif dan kerumitan Dari perspektif inovasi, dan sokongan dan Masa Dari perspektif persekitaran ) . Pemilihan faktor-faktor pendifusian adalah berdasarkan kepada empat teori iaitu Teori Pendifusian Rogers ( 2003 ) , Technology Acceptance Model ( 1986 ) , Theory of Reasoned Action ( 1975 ) dan Theory of Planned Behavior ( 1986 ) . Teori-teori tersebut digabungkan dan digunakan sebagai asas dalam kajian ini untuk mengkaji hubungan antara faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam kalangan guru Matematik yang mengajar Tingkatan 1 di Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan harian di negeri Kedah. Selain itu, kajian ini juga mengkaji sumbangan variabel-variabel jantina, umur, pengalaman mengajar dan lokasi sekolah sebagai moderator hubungan antara faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif.1.4 OBJEKTIF KAJIANObjektif kajian ini secara umumnya adalah untuk meninjau hubungan antara faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan guru Matematik terhadap perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Secara khususnya kajian ini ber tujuan untuk: 1. mengenal pasti hubungan antara faktor-faktor pendifusian ( pengalaman, efikasi kendiri, kelebihan relatif, kerumitan, sokongan & A ; masa ) dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. 2. mengkaji perbezaan terhadap penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif antara variabel jantina, umur, pengalaman mengajar dan lokasi sekolah. 3. mengenal pasti faktor pendifusian ( pengalaman, efikasi kendiri, kelebihan relatif, kerumitan, sokongan & A ; masa ) yang menjadi peramal utama kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. 4. menentukan sama adenosine deaminase variabel jantina, umur, pengalaman mengajar dan lokasi sekolah menjadi moderator antara hubungan faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif.1.5 PERSOALAN KAJIANBerdasarkan objektif kajian di atas, soalan-soalan kajian berikut dibentuk: 1. adakah terdapat hubungan antara faktor-faktor pendifusian ( pengalaman, efikasi kendiri, kelebihan relatif, kerumitan, sokongan & A ; masa ) dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif? 2. adakah terdapat perbezaan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif antara variabel jantina, umur, pengalaman mengajar dan lokasi sekolah? 3. apakah faktor pendifusian ( pengalaman, efikasi kendiri, kelebihan relatif, kerumitan, sokongan & A ; masa ) yang menjadi peramal utama kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif? 4. adakah variabel jantina, umur, pengalaman mengajar dan lokasi sekolah menjadi moderator antara hubungan faktor-faktor pendifusian ( pengalaman, efikasi kendiri, kelebihan relatif, kerumitan, sokongan & A ; masa ) dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif?1.6 HIPOTESIS KAJIANBerdasarkan objektif kajian, beberapa hipotesis telah dibentuk bagi menjawab persoalan kajian. Ho1 Tidak terdapat hubungan antara faktor-faktor pendifusian ( pengalaman, efikasi kendiri, kelebihan relatif, kerumitan, sokongan & A ; masa ) dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho1a: Tidak terdapat hubungan yang positif antara faktor pengalaman dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho1b: Tidak terdapat hubungan yang positif antara faktor kendiri dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho1c: Tidak terdapat hubungan yang positif antara faktor kelebihan relatif dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho1d: Tidak terdapat hubungan yang negatif antara faktor kerumitan dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho1e: Tidak terdapat hubungan yang positif antara faktor sokongan dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho1f: Tidak terdapat hubungan yang positif antara faktor Masa dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho2 Tidak terdapat perbezaan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif antara variabel jantina, umur, pengalaman mengajar dan lokasi sekolah. Ho2a: Tidak terdapat perbezaan signifikan antara jantina dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho2b: Tidak terdapat perbezaan signifikan antara umur dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho2c: Tidak terdapat perbezaan signifikan antara pengalaman mengajar dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho2d: Tidak terdapat perbezaan signifikan antara lokasi sekolah dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho3 Faktor pendifusian ( pengalaman, efikasi kendiri, kelebihan relatif, kerumitan, sokongan & A ; masa ) tidak menjadi peramal utama kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho3a: Faktor pengalaman tidak menjadi peramal utama kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho3b: Faktor efikasi kendiri tidak menjadi peramal utama kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho3c: Faktor kelebihan relatif tidak menjadi peramal utama kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho3d: Faktor kerumitan tidak menjadi peramal utama kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho3e: Faktor sokongan tidak menjadi peramal utama kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho3f: Faktor Masa tidak menjadi peramal utama kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho4 Variabel jantina, umur, pengalaman mengajar dan lokasi sekolah tidak menjadi moderator antara hubungan faktor-faktor pendifusian ( pengalaman, efikasi kendiri, kelebihan relatif, kerumitan, sokongan & A ; masa ) dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho4a: Variabel jantina tidak menjadi moderator antara hubungan faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho4b: Variabel umur tidak menjadi moderator antara hubungan faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho4c: Variabel pengalaman mengajar tidak menjadi moderator antara hubungan faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Ho4d: Variabel lokasi sekolah tidak menjadi moderator antara hubungan faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif.1.7 KERANGKA TEORI KAJIANRajah 1.1 Kerangka Teori kajianRajah 1.1 menunjukkan kerangka teori kajian yang menggabungkan Teori Pendifusian Rogers ( 2003 ) , Technology Acceptance Model ( TAM ) ( 1986 ) , Model Theory of Reasoned Action ( TRA ) ( 1975 ) dan Model Theory of Planned Behavior ( TPB ) ( 1986 ) . Berdasarkan teori pendifusian Rogers, penerimaan sesuatu inovasi dipengaruhi oleh faktor-faktor daripada perspektif penerima, perspektif inovasi dan perspektif persekitaran. Kerangka teori menjelaskan bahawa niat untuk melakukan sesuatu tindakan dan persepsi kawalan kelakuan ( Model TRA dan TPB ) akan mempengaruhi keputusan sesorang individu untuk menerima sesuatu inovasi. Dalam konteks kajian ini, niat kelakuan dan persepsi kawalan kelakuan diwakili oleh faktor pengalaman guru dan faktor efikasi kendiri guru untuk mengkaji hubungan faktor -faktor tersebut terhadap penerimaan inovasi perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Model TAM pula menjelaskan bahawa kesenangan mengguna dan persepsi kebergunaan yang ada pada sesuatu inovasi akan menjadi penentu kepada penerimaan inovasi tersebut dalam komuniti penerima. Dengan itu, faktor kelebihan relatif dan kerumitan dipilih untuk mewakili perspektif inovasi dalam mengkaji hubungan antara faktor kelebihan relatif dan kerumitan dengan penerimaan inovasi perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Di samping faktor-faktor daripada perspektif penerima dan perspektif inovasi, Rogers ( 2003 ) menjelaskan bahawa penerimaan sesuatu inovasi juga dipengaruhi oleh sokongan persekitaran di mana inovasi tersebu disebarkan. Sokongan persekitaran dapat dilihat dari aspek sokongan pihak pengurusan, sokongan kemudahan dan sokongan teknikal di samping keperluan Masa untuk membolehkan guru menerima sesuatu inovasi dan mengintegrasikannya dalam P & A ; P. Dalam konteks kajian ini, perspektif persekitaran diwakili oleh faktor-faktor sokongan dan Masa untuk mengkaji hubungan perspektif persekitaran dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif.1.8 KERANGKA KONSEPTUAL KAJIANVariabel Bebas Variabel BersandarVariabel ModeratorRajah 1.2: Hubungan antara Faktor Pendifusian dengan PenerimaanPerisian Kursus Multimedia InteraktifRajah 1.2 menunjukkan kerangka konseptual kajian yang dibina berasaskan kepada Teori Pendifusian oleh Rogers ( 2003 ) , Technology Acceptance Model ( 1989 ) , Model Th eory of Reasoned Action ( 1975 ) dan Model Theory of Planned Behavior ( 1986 ) . Pemilihan faktor-faktor pengalaman dan efikasi kendiri yang mewakili perpektif penerima adalah berdasarkan kepada Model Theory of Reasoned Action dan Model Theory of Planned Behavior. Model-model ini menjelaskan bahawa pengalaman guru dan efikasi kendiri merupakan faktor-faktor penting yang menyumbang kepada penerimaan sesuatu inovasi. Penerimaan inovasi bergantung kepada individu itu sendiri untuk membuat keputusan sama adenosine deaminase untuk menerima atau menolak sesuatu inovasi. Manakala faktor-faktor kerumitan dan kelebihan relatif dipilih berdasarkan Technology Acceptance Model. Kedua-dua faktor ini dikatakan mempunyai pengaruh yang kuat ke atas penerimaan sesuatu inovasi yang berasaskan teknologi. Model ini menekankan bahawa tahap penerimaan sesuatu inovasi adalah bergantung sepenuhnya kepada ciri-ciri inovasi itu sendiri. Faktor-faktor bagi perspektif persekitaran pula dipilih berdasarkan Model Pendifusian oleh Rogers. Model Pendifusian menjelaskan bahawa persepsi dan sokongan persekitaran dari segi sokongan dan Masa amat mempengaruhi pendifusian sesuatu inovasi. Guru di sekolah memerlukan sokongan pentadbiran dan teknikal serta Masa yang secukupnya untuk menggunakan sesuatu inovasi. Berdasarkan tinjauan literatur di samping faktor-faktor pendifusian ( pengalaman, efikasi kendiri, kelebihan relatif, kerumitan, sokongan & A ; Masa ) , variabel-variabel jantina, umur, pengalaman mengajar dan lokasi sekolah juga mempengaruhi penerimaan sesuatu inovasi teknologi. Variabel-variabel tersebut dijadikan sebagai variabel moderator dalam kajian ini kerana menjadi penyederhana antara hubungan faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif.1.9 SKOP KAJIANKajian ini dijalankan di 30 buah Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan ( SMK ) harian bandar dan 30 buah SMK harian luar bandar di negeri Kedah Darul Aman. Di negeri Kedah terdapat 144 buah SMK harian yang meliputi 11 buah daerah pentadbiran iaitu Kota Setar, Kuala Muda, Kulim, Kubang Pasu, Langkawi, Padang Terap, Sik, Baling, Yan, Pendang dan Bandar Baharu. Pembangunan pendidikan di Negeri Kedah adalah berlandaskan polisi pendidikan peringkat kebangsaan yang memberi penekanan kepada kecemerlangan ak demik dan peningkatan golongan profesional dalam pelbagai bidang. Bagi memenuhi keperluan pendidikan di negeri Kedah, kerajaan telah membina sekolah rendah dan sekolah menengah di bandar dan luar bandar. Selain itu, di negeri Kedah juga terdapat beberapa institusi pengajian tinggi awam iaitu Universiti Utara Malaysia, Universiti Teknologi Mara, Universiti Islam INSANIAH dan Kolej Universiti Pertanian. Rasional pemilihan mata pelajaran Matematik dalam kajian ini adalah kerana Matematik merupakan mata pelajaran yang melibatkan konsep-konsep yang abstrak. Perkara ini menyebabkan parity pelajar menghadapi masalah dalam membina perkaitan antara satu konsep dengan konsep yang lain. Kajian oleh Siaw ( 2008 ) mendapati pencapaian pelajar yang mengikuti pengajaran Matematik secara konvensional iaitu ‘chalk and talk ‘ adalah lebih rendah berbanding pencapaian pelajar yang belajar dengan berbantukan teknologi. Justeru, pengajaran konvensional hanya menekankan kepada konsep hafalan terhadap fakta-fakta yang diberikan oleh guru tanpa memahami perkaitan antara satu konsep dengan satu konsep. Ini menyebabkan pelajar tidak dapat memahami konsep Matematik dengan jelas dan memperoleh pencapaian yang rendah. Pengintegrasian ICT di sekolah menyebabkan pelbagai peralatan teknologi dan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dibekalkan kepada guru Matematik untuk memudahkan pengajaran dalam Indonesian Inggeris dan meningkatkan pemahaman pelajar dalam Matematik. Di samping itu, pendekatan pengajaran juga berubah daripada pendekatan konvensional kepada pendekatan berbantukan teknologi. Penggunaan teknologi dalam P & A ; P membantu parity pelajar membina konsep abstrak dengan ocular yang konkrit. Rasional pemilihan guru Matematik yang mengajar Tingkatan 1 sebagai sampel kajian adalah berdasarkan pada pelaksanaan awal PPSMI di peringkat Darjah 1, Tingkatan 1 dan Tingkatan 6 Rendah. Memandangkan plan ini telah dilaksanakan sejak tahun 2003, guru tersebut merupakan kumpulan perintis pertama yang telah menjalani P & A ; P Matematik menggunakan Bahasa Inggeris. Mereka telah mempunyai pengalaman mengajar dengan menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Pelajar-pelajar yang memasuki Tingkatan 1 juga telah mempunyai pengalaman belajar dengan menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif semasa berada di sekolah rendah. Hal ini memudahkan guru untuk mengajar Matematik dengan menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif.1.10 KEPENTINGAN KAJIANTujuan kajian ini adalah untuk mengkaji hubungan faktor-faktor pendifusian seperti pengalaman, efikasi kendiri, kelebihan relatif, kerumitan, sokongan dan Masa dalam mempengaruhi penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif d alam P & A ; P. Walaupun terdapat banyak faktor yang mempengaruhi penerimaan sesuatu inovasi, tetapi terdapat enam faktor yang dominan dalam tiga perspektif iaitu penerima, inovasi dan persekitaran dipilih untuk melihat hubungan faktor-faktor tersebut dalam menjamin keberkesanan pendifusian dan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Di samping itu, dapatan kajian ini dapat membantu untuk mengenal pasti faktor-faktor yang perlu diberi penekanan dalam pendifusian dan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam kalangan guru. Hasil kajian ini boleh membantu individu yang terlibat dalam mereka bentuk perisian kursus multimedia interaktif untuk P & A ; P. Pereka bentuk perisian kursus dapat mengetahui reka bentuk plan pendidikan yang diharapkan oleh guru dan pelajar. Dengan itu, mereka akan menitikberatkan ciri-ciri pengguna sasaran semasa mereka bentuk produk pendidikan. Dalam konteks kajian ini, perisian kursus multimedia interaktif yang dihasilkan perlu memenuhi keperluan pendidikan dan harus mengambil kira tentang kepelbagaian kebolehan murid dan guru. Penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif perlu sesuai dalam pelbagai persekitaran pembelajaran ( Eliane, 2001 ) . Perisian kursus multimedia interaktif juga perlu mempunyai reka bentuk antaramuka yang baik serta dihasilkan secara profesional supaya dapat digunakan dalam pelbagai gaya P & A ; P. Selain itu, dapatan kajian ini Akan membantu pereka bentuk produk untuk merancang latihan dan pembangunan staf serta mencari penyelesaian kepada pendifusia n sesuatu inovasi yang akan dibangunkan.1.11 LIMITASI KAJIANPenerimaan dan penggunaan teknologi pendidikan hanya berfokus kepada inovasi perisian kursus multimedia interaktif yang dibekalkan oleh Bahagian Teknologi Pendidikan, KPM untuk mata pelajaran Matematik. Di mana, perisian kursus ini mengandungi Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence pelajaran yang lengkap untuk mata pelajaran Matematik serta mengikut sukatan pelajaran sepenuhnya. Responden yang terlibat dalam kajian ini adalah guru Matematik yang mengajar Tingkatan 1 di sekolah menengah kebangsaan ( SMK ) harian yang terletak dalam negeri Kedah sahaja. Sekolah yang terlibat dalam kajian ini adalah terdiri daripada sekolah di bandar dan luar bandar seperti yang telah dikategorikan oleh Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri Kedah. Kajian ini juga terbatas kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam mata pelajaran Matematik sahaja. Penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam mata pelajaran Sains tidak dikaji. Proses pembelajaran mata pelajaran Matematik adalah kompleks dan dinamik. Pengajaran Matematik yang melibatkan konsep-konsep yang abstrak menyebabkan pelajar menghadapi kesukaran menguasai kemahiran Matematik. Perkaitan di antara satu konsep dengan konsep yang lain juga menimbulkan kekeliruan dan menyebabkan pelajar sukar memahami konsep yang baru dan berbeza-beza. Dalam perisian kursus multimedia interaktif Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence pengajaran disusun dan dipersembahkan secara teratur supaya pelajar dapat membina konsep dan kemahiran Matematik secara aktif dan bermakna.1.12 DEFINISI OPERASIONALDalam kajian ini, terdapat istilah-istilah yang perlu diberi definisi untuk pemahaman umum tentang sesuatu makna dan konsep. Definisi istilah tersebut adalah seperti be rikut:1.12.1 Faktor Pendifusian1.12.1 ( a ) PengalamanTahap pengetahuan dan kebolehan sedia ada guru dalam menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P.1.12.1 ( B ) Efikasi kendiriKepercayaan guru tentang kemampuan menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P.1.12.1 ( degree Celsius ) Kelebihan relatifPerisian kursus multimedia interaktif yang diterima mampu menggantikan teknologi yang sedia ada serta menjadi penyelesaian kepada perkara-perkara lain.1.12.1 ( vitamin D ) KerumitanKesukaran untuk memahami dan menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P.1.12.1 ( vitamin E ) SokonganLatihan tentang cara penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P, maklumat atau bahan-bahan yang boleh didapati daripada perisian kursus dan sokongan pihak pentadbiran dalam menggalakkan guru untuk menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P.1.12.1 ( vitamin E ) MasaMasa untuk mempelajari cara menggunak an perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dan membuat persediaan untuk mengajar dengan menggunakan teknologi tersebut.1.12.2 Penerimaan Perisian Kursus Multimedia InteraktifPengintegrasian perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam proses P & A ; P mata pelajaran Matematik.1.12.3 Perisian Kursus Multimedia InteraktifBahan pengajaran dalam bentuk CD-ROM yang dibekalkan untuk penggunaan guru oleh Bahagian Teknologi Pendidikan untuk mata pelajaran Matematik. Perisian kursus multimedia interaktif yang dibangunkan adalah bersifat resource based berdasarkan kurikulum dan bertujuan membantu pelajar dalam aspek pembelajaran. Bahan pengajaran ini menggabungkan elemen-elemen teks, picture, grafik, animasi dan sound di dalam komputer dan pengguna boleh berinteraksi dengannya ( Putt & A ; Henderson, 1996 ) .1.12.4 Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan HarianSekolah menengah kebangsaan ( SMK ) harian yang ditentukan berdasarkan informations daripada Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri Kedah.1.12.5 Lokasi SekolahLoka si sekolah bandar atau luar bandar ditentukan berdasarkan informations daripada Jabatan Pelajaran Negeri Kedah.1.13 KESIMPULANPerkembangan ICT di Malaysia telah membawa pelbagai perubahan dalam pendidikan. Di mana, pelbagai inovasi teknologi diperkenalkan untuk meningkatkan lagi keberkesanan penyampaian pengajaran dalam bilik darjah. Perisian kursus multimedia interaktif merupakan suatu inovasi penting yang diperkenalkan dalam proses P & A ; P mata pelajaran Matematik dan Sains menerusi plan PPSMI. Pihak KPM berharap penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dapat membawa perubahan besar Dari aspek kaedah pengajaran guru dan cara pembelajaran pelajar. Walau bagaimanapun, kajian-kajian Lepas menunjukkan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam kalangan guru masih berada pada tahap yang rendah. Oleh itu, enam faktor yang menjadi peramal utama dalam keberkesanan pendifusian dikaji untuk melihat hubungan antara faktor-faktor tersebut dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam kalangan guru Matematik di Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan harian di negeri Kedah. Di samping itu, sumbangan variabel-variabel jantina, umur, pengalaman mengajar dan lokasi sekolah sebagai moderator hubungan antara faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif juga turut dikaji.BAB 2TINJAUAN LITERATUR2.1 PengenalanKajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti faktor-faktor yang boleh mempengaruhi proses pendifusian dalam persekitaran pendidikan. Faktor pengalaman dan efikasi kendiri digunakan untuk mengkaji ciri-ciri penerima inovasi. Faktor kelebihan relatif dan kerumitan dipilih untuk melihat ciri-cir i inovasi itu sendiri. Manakala faktor sokongan dan Masa pula adalah berasaskan kepada ciri-ciri persekitaran di mana sesuatu inovasi akan diperkenalkan. Tinjauan literatur ini Akan memberi fokus kepada teori pendifusian inovasi, model-model, faktor-faktor pendifusian, pelaksanaan pengajaran berbantukan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dan penerimaan inovasi.2.2 Konsep dan definisi Pendifusian InovasiPendifusian inovasi ialah suatu proses bagaimana inovasi disebarkan melalui saluran komunikasi tertentu kepada ahli-ahli dalam suatu sistem sosial. Rogers ( 2003 ) menegaskan bahawa penerimaan sesuatu inovasi bergantung pada empat unsur iaitu ciri inovasi, saluran komunikasi, masa dan sistem sosial. Menurut Yusuf ( 1998 ) sesuatu inovasi yang diperkenalkan boleh dikatakan berjaya melalui proses pendifusian sekiranya lebih 84 peratus pengguna akhir telah menerima dan menggunakan inovasi itu. Dengan itu, kejayaan sesuatu inovasi banyak bergantung pada faktor pendifusian inovasi terse but. Menurut Sherry dan Gibson ( 2002 ) kajian tentang penggunaan inovasi telah dijalankan lebih daripada 30 tahun dahulu dan teori Pendifusian Rogers ( 2003 ) telah menjadi asas kepada kajian-kajian yang berkaitan dengan pendifusian inovasi. Teori Pendufisian Rogers ( 2003 ) mempunyai hubungan yang kuat dengan inovasi di dalam bidang teknologi pendidikan kerana menekankan proses penyebaran maklumat setelah berlakunya sesuatu inovasi. Menurut Rogers ( 2003 ) , sesuatu thought atau inovasi baru amat sukar diterima walaupun thought tersebut mempunyai banyak kelebihan. Ini menyebabkan kajian tentang pendifusian inovasi diberi tumpuan untuk mengenal pasti punca penerimaan atau penolakan sesuatu inovasi.2.3 Teori Pendifusian Rogers ( 2003 )Teori Pendifusian oleh Rogers sering digunakan sebagai kerangka penyelidikan oleh penyelidik di seluruh dunia. Dalam teorinya, beliau menerangkan tentang proses pendifusian, kategori penerima, sifat-sifat inovasi dan kadar pendifusian. Teori ini memberi pene kanan bahawa di samping mereka bentuk sesuatu inovasi yang baik, ahli teknologi pendidikan juga perlu memikirkan tentang cara untuk mendifusikan inovasi tersebut. Perkara utama yang perlu dititikberatkan dalam pendifusian inovasi ialah bagaimana sesuatu inovasi itu diterima dan mengapa penerimaan inovasi ini berlaku pada kadar yang berbeza. Sumber: Terjemahan dari Rogers ( 2003 )Rajah 2.1: Teori Pendifusian Inovasi Rogers ( 2003 )Rajah 2.1 menunjukkan proses pendifusian mengikut Teori Rogers ( 2003 ) . Berdasarkan teori tersebut proses pendifusian terbahagi kepada Lima langkah iaitu pengetahuan, pujukan, membuat keputusan, pelaksanaan dan pengesahan. Seseorang yang bakal menerima sesuatu inovasi perlu memahami dengan lebih mendalam tentang inovasi tersebut serta cara penggunaannya sebelum membuat keputusan untuk menerima inovasi tersebut atau sebaliknya. Apabila sesuatu komuniti masyarakat telah bersedia untuk menerima inovasi yang baru maka pereka bentuk perlu merancang cara untuk menyalurkan inovasi tersebut kepada masyarakat. Rogers ( 2003 ) menyatakan faktor- faktor utama yang mempengaruhi proses penyebaran ialah inovasi itu sendiri, bagaimana untuk menyebarkan maklumat tentang inovasi yang telah dibuat, Masa penyebaran dan struktur masyarakat di mana inovasi itu disebarkan. Teori pendifusian amat penting kerana teori ini menyatakan bahawa proses pendifusian bukanlah satu perkara yang muktamad malah merupakan satu proses berterusan yang boleh dikaji, dipermudahkan dan disokong. Menurut Rogers ( 2003 ) penerimaan seseorang individu terhadap inovasi yang diperkenalkan adalah tidak sama. Penerimaan terhadap inovasi banyak dipengaruhi oleh ciri-ciri peribadi serta latar belakang individu itu sendiri tentang sejauh mana bersedia untuk menerima inovasi. Menurut Rogers ( 2003 ) terdapat lima tahap penerima inovasi iaitu perintis ( pioneers ) ( 2.5 % ) , penerima awal ( early adoptive parents ) ( 13.5 % ) , penerima majoriti awal ( early bulk ) ( 34 % ) , penerima majoriti lewat ( late bulk ) ( 34 % ) dan penerima lembab ( dawdlers ) ( 16 % ) . Secara keseluruhannya, Teori Rogers ( 2003 ) membincangkan dengan mendalam bagaimana sesuatu yang baru sama adenosine deaminase dalam bentuk thought, teknologi, barangan atau teknik-teknik berkembang dalam berbagai-bagai khalayak sehingga diterima dan diamalkan sepenuhnya oleh masyarakat. Dalam konteks kajian ini, Teori Pendifusian Rogers digunakan untuk mengkaji penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P dalam kalangan guru dan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan guru untuk menerima inovasi perisian kursus multimedia interaktif.2.4 Model-modelBerikut merupakan model-model yang digunakan dalam kajian untuk melihat pengaruh faktor-faktor pendifusian dengan penerimaan teknologi perisian kursus. Technology Acceptance Model ( 1989 ) merupakan model utama yang dirujuk dalam kajian ini manakala Model Theory of Reasoned Action ( 1975 ) dan Model Theory of Planned Behavior ( 1986 ) digunakan untuk menyokongnya.2.4.1 Theory of Reasoned Action ( 1975 )Fishbein dan A jzen ( 1975 ) merupakan pengasas kepada Model Theory of Reasoned Action ( TRA ) . Model ini adalah asas kepada perhubungan di antara dua komponen kepercayaan iaitu persepsi terhadap kebergunaan ( sensed utility ) dan persepsi terhadap kesenangan mengguna ( sensed easiness of usage ) . Berdasarkan Model TRA ( Rajah 2.2 ) , niat menjadi penentu kepada berlakunya sesuatu kelakuan. Di mana, kepercayaan individu akan mempengaruhi sikap individu dan seterusnya membentuk niat yang akan menghasilkan sesuatu kelakuan. Sumber: Fishbein dan Ajzen ( 1975 )Rajah 2.2: Theory of Reasoned Action ( 1975 )Model ini menjelaskan bahawa sikap seseorang terhadap kelakuan dan norma subjektif Akan menentukan niat kelakuan. Sikap seseorang terhadap kelakuan merujuk kepada penilaiannya bahawa sama adenosine deaminase pelaksanaan sesuatu kelakuan adalah baik atau buruk. Manakala norma subjektif pula menunjukkan pengaruh sosial yang mempengaruhi seseorang sama adenosine deaminase melaksanakan sesuatu kelakuan atau tidak. Di samping itu, theoretical account TRA juga menegaskan bahawa sikap merupakan satu fungsi daripada kepercayaan. Pada umumnya, seseorang individu yang mempercayai bahawa pelaksanaan sesuatu kelakuan akan membawa hasil positif dan ini Akan menyebabkan indvidu tersebut menunjukkan satu sikap yang baik ke arah pelaksanaan kelakuan tersebut dan sebaliknya ( Fishbein dan Ajzen, 1975 ) . Model TRA telah menjadi asas kepada kewujudan Model Theory of Planned Behavior ( 1986 ) dan Technology Acceptance Model ( 1989 ) . Dalam konteks kajian ini, Model TRA akan digunakan untuk mengenal pasti bagaimana pengalaman guru dalam menggunakan teknologi dapat mempengaruhi penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam kalangan guru Matematik. Pengalaman seseorang guru akan mengurangkan kebimbangan dan menggalakkan guru untuk mengubah sikap atau tingkah lakunya untuk menerima perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dan mengintegrasikannya dalam P & A ; P mata pelajaran Matematik.2.4.2 Theory of Planned Behavior ( 1986 )Theory of Planned Behavior ( TPB ) diasaskan oleh Ajzen dan Madden ( 1986 ) Mereka telah mengubahsuai theoretical account TRA dengan memasukkan satu variabel tambahan iaitu persepsi kawalan kelakuan ( sensed behavioural control ) . Persepsi kawalan kelakuan merujuk kepada tanggapan seseorang individu terhadap halangan dalaman atau halangan luaran yang dihadapi semasa melakukan sesuatu kelakuan ( Ajzen, 1985 ) . Sumber: Ajzen dan Madden ( 1986 )Rajah 2.3: Theory of Planned Behavior ( 1986 )Model TPB ( Rajah 2.3 ) menjelaskan bahawa pengawalan kelakuan secara langsung mempengaruhi niat untuk melaksanakan sesuatu kelakuan dan kemungkinan juga secara langsung mempengaruhi kelakuan dalam situasi di mana pengguna berniat untuk melaksanakan sesuatu kelakuan tetapi dihalang daripada melakukan tindakan tersebut. Mengikut theoretical account TPB, kelakuan seseorang individu dapat dijelaskan melalui niat kelakuan seseorang itu di mana niat kelakuan dipengaruhi juga oleh sikap, norma subjektif dan persepsi kawalan kelakuan. Pengaplikasian theoretical account TPB dalam kajian ini dapat dilihat dari aspek bagaimana kawalan kelakuan mempengaruhi niat guru untuk menerima perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P mata pelajaran Matematik. Persepsi kawalan kelakuan yang positif dalam kalangan guru akan mempengaruhi niat guru untuk menerima perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Manakala persepsi kawalan kelakuan yang negatif boleh menyebakan wujud halangan-halangan kepada penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Dalam konteksi kajian ini, persepsi kawalan kelakuan akan diwakili oleh variabel efikasi kendiri.2.4.3 Technology Acceptance Model ( 1989 )Technology Acceptance Model ( TAM ) dibina oleh Davis ( 1986 ) dan diperkenalkan oleh Davis, Bagozzi dan Warshaw ( 1989 ) . Model ini merupakan adaptasi daripada Model Theory of Reasoned Action. Dalam TAM terdapat dua konstruk yang penting yang terlibat dalam penerimaan teknologi maklumat iaitu persepsi terhadap kebergunaan ( sensed utility ) d an persepsi terhadap kesenangan mengguna ( perceived ease-of-use ) . TAM menekankan bahawa niat untuk menggunakan sesuatu sistem adalah ditentukan oleh kedua-dua persepsi terhadap kebergunaan dan persepsi terhadap kesenangan mengguna. Rajah 2.4 menunjukkan hubungan konstruk-konstruk dalam TAM. Sumber: Davis et Al. ( 1989 )Rajah 2.4: Technology Acceptance Model ( 1989 )Persepsi terhadap kebergunaan dijelaskan sebagai individu merasakan teknologi maklumat mudah dikendalikan untuk melaksanakan tugas-tugas yang diberikan di tempat kerja. Manakala persepsi terhadap kesenangan mengguna pula menjelaskan individu mempunyai persepsi bahawa penggunaan teknologi maklumat di tempat kerja akan meningkatkan kualiti kerja dan produktiviti. Kedua-dua persepsi ini Akan mempengaruhi sikap individu terhadap penggunaan sesuatu teknologi manakala sikap dan persepsi terhadap kebergunaan akan meramalkan niat perlakuan individu. Selain itu, persepsi terhadap kesenangan mengguna akan mempengaruhi persepsi terhadap kebergunaan. Peningkatan pengantaraan di antara pengguna Akan memberi kesan yang kuat terhadap kedua-dua persepsi ini. Tambahan pula, Davis ( 1986 ) telah menyatakan bahawa persepsi terhadap kesenangan mengguna akan memberi kesan positif kepada penerimaan teknologi. Dalam TAM, persepsi terhadap kebergunaan adalah faktor utama manakala persepsi terhadap kesenangan mengguna adalah faktor kedua menjadi penentu kepada penggunaan teknologi ( Saade & A ; Bahli, 2005 ) . Dalam konteks kajian ini, kebergunaan perisian kursus dan kesenangan menggunakan perisian kursus dikaji untuk melihat hubungan faktor-faktor tersebut terhadap penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam kalangan guru Matematik. Berdasarkan teori ini, faktor kebergunaan dan kesenangan mengguna perisian kursus multimedia interaktif akan mempengaruhi guru untuk menerima dan mengintegrasikan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P mata pelajaran Matematik. Model ini menjelaskan ciri-ciri yang ada pada perisian kursus multimedia interaktif akan menjadi penentu kepada penerimaan inovasi tersebut dalam kalangan guru Matematik yang mengajar Tingkatan 1.2.5 Faktor-faktor yang telah dikenal pasti menjadi halangan kepada Pendifusian dan Penerimaan InovasiPakar bidang pendifusian inovasi mendapati bahawa tidak terdapat satu faktor khas atau sekumpulan faktor yang boleh digunakan untuk menerangkan kekurangan penerimaan sesuatu inovasi. Pakar teknologi pendidikan telah men jalankan beberapa kajian untuk mengenal pasti faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi pendifusian dan penerimaan sesuatu inovasi teknologi. Rogers ( 2001 ) telah menjalankan kajian dengan menggunakan kaedah temu bual untuk mengenal pasti halangan-halangan yang dihadapi semasa pendifusian sesuatu teknologi. Antara halangan yang dikenal pasti ialah keperluan staf sokongan bahagian teknikal, keperluan Masa yang lebih, keperluan latihan dan kekurangan perkongsian maklumat. Morris ( 2001 ) pula mendapati faktor-faktor kekurangan bantuan teknikal, kekurangan peralatan, Masa terhad, kekurangan kemahiran komputer dan ketiadaan sokongan daripada pihak pengurusan menjadi halangan kepada guru semasa menerima dan mengintegrasikan teknologi dalam pengajaran. Kajian oleh Anderson, Varnhagen dan Campbell ( 1998 ) ke atas 557 Pongo pygmaeus guru telah mengenal pasti sembilan faktor yang menjadi penghalang kepada penerimaan bahan teknologi iaitu kekurangan kewangan, kekurangan Masa, infrastruktur, perkakasan komputer, sokongan pihak pengurusan, pengetahuan tentang cara menggunakan teknologi dalam pengajaran, capaian kepada perisian, kekurangan latihan dan sokongan dan maklumat tentang teknologi yang sedia adenosine deaminase. Kajian tinjauan oleh Beggs ( 2000 ) ke atas 348 Pongo pygmaeus guru mendapati terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara gaya pengajaran guru, teknologi yang sesuai, dan sokongan pihak pengurusan dengan penerimaan dan penggunaan teknologi. Ini menjelaskan bahawa peningkatan dalam faktor-faktor tersebut turut menyebabkan peningkatan dalam tahap penerimaan teknologi. Mohd. Sarif ( 1998 ) yang telah mengkaji tentang faktor-faktor yang menjadi penghalang kepada pendifusian teknologi pendidikan dalam kalangan guru Sekolah Menengah Sains di pantai Tamerlane semenanjung Malaysia. Mohd. Sarif telah menguji empat faktor iaitu individu, birokratik, ekonomi dan logistik dan mendapati faktor-faktor tersebut menyumbang kepada keberkesanan proses pendifusian dan peningkatan penerimaan teknologi pendidikan dalam kalangan guru. Ini menjelaskan bahawa sumbangan pelbagai faktor yang terkandung proses pendifusian menjadi penentu kepada kejayaan penerimaan sesuatu inovasi atau sebaliknya dalam kalangan komuniti penerima inovasi tersebut. Kelebihan inovasi itu sendiri hanya merupakan satu faktor yang mempengaruhi penerimaan inovasi kerana kejayaan penerimaan inovasi turut dipengaruhi oleh faktor penerima, sokongan, kemudahan, kewangan dan Masa.2.6 Faktor-faktor Pendifusian InovasiTerdapat enam faktor yang dianggap mempunyai pengaruh yang kuat dengan proses pendifusian inovasi. Faktor-faktor ini dipilih berdasarkan Teori Pendifusian Rogers ( 2003 ) dan TAM ( 1989 ) , TRA ( 1975 ) dan TPB ( 1986 ) yang berkaitan dengan proses inovasi dan difusi yang merangkumi tiga perspektif iaitu perspektif penerima, perspektif inovasi dan perspektif persekitaran.2.6.1 Perspektif PenerimaPerspektif penerima merujuk kepada ciri-ciri peribadi seseorang individu Dari segi pengalaman dan efikasi kendiri.2.6.1 ( a ) PengalamanPengala man didefinisikan sebagai tahap pengetahuan dan kebolehan sedia ada pengguna dalam menggunakan sesuatu inovasi. Bandura ( 1997 ) telah menegaskan bahawa pengalaman mungkin dapat mengurangkan kebimbangan dan menggalakkan individu untuk mengubah sikap atau tingkah lakunya. Anderson, Varnhagen dan Campbell ( 1998 ) mendapati guru teknologi yang menggunakan pelbagai plan komputer lebih mahir dan mempunyai pengalaman yang banyak berbanding guru lain. Stone dan Henry ( 2003 ) menyatakan bahawa pengalaman yang positif akan menyebabkan seseorang pengguna lebih yakin apabila menggunakan inovasi yang hampir serupa. Dengan kata lain, pengalaman Lepas yang positif akan meningkatkan keyakinan terhadap sesuatu inovasi, manakala pengalaman negatif akan menyebabkan keyakinan terhadap sesuatu inovasi semakin berkurangan. Kajian oleh Ndubisi ( 2004 ) menunjukkan bahawa pengalaman menggunakan komputer mempunyai kaitan secara tidak langsung dengan keinginan seseorang menerima teknologi baru. Dalam konteks kajian ini, pengalaman dilihat dari aspek tahap pengetahuan dan kebolehan sedia ada pengguna dalam menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam P & A ; P. Pengetahuan tentang teknologi dan pengalaman yang menarik akan meningkatkan sikap positif guru terhadap penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dan pengintegrasiannya dalam pengajaran, seterusnya mengurangkan atau menghilangkan kebimbangan terhadap penerimaan teknologi ( Bruce, 2005 ) .2.6.1 ( B ) Efikasi KendiriMenurut Teori Efikasi Kendiri Bandura ( 1997 ) , pertimbangan efikasi kendiri adalah berdasarkan kepada beberapa jenis maklumat. Antaranya ialah pelaksanaan prestasi, pengalaman, kebangkitan emosi dan pujukan lisan. Bandura ( 1997 ) menyatakan efikasi kendiri yang positif mampu menggalakkan pembelajaran kemahiran-kemahiran baru manakala efikasi kendiri yang negatif boleh mewujudkan halangan-halangan kepada penerokaan perkara baru. Dapatan kajian oleh Lin dan Jeffres ( 1998 ) menunjukkan guru yang mempunyai efikasi kendiri yang rendah mempunyai tahap kebimbangan yang tinggi terhadap komputer. Kesan ini akan meningkatkan halangan-halangan untuk seseorang pendidik mempelajari teknologi baru. Di samping itu, Pajares ( 2002 ) mendapati perasaan rasa selesa atau bimbang terhadap komputer boleh mempengaruhi keyakinan individu terhadap komputer. Justeru, tahap keyakinan memainkan peranan sebagai penentu yang signifikan dalam menentukan keinginan untuk mempelajari kemahiran teknologi. Bennett dan Bennett ( 2003 ) telah mengkaji tentang ciri-ciri teknologi yang boleh mempengaruhi penerimaan teknologi tersebut dalam P & A ; P. Berdasarkan dapatan kajian, Bennett dan Bennett merumuskan bahawa kekurangan bajet dan kelemahan teknologi bukan lagi menjadi faktor utama penerimaan sesuatu teknologi. Bennett dan Bennett mendapati kekurangan keyakinan guru terhadap kemampuan teknologi dan kurangnya kesediaan guru dalam menerima sesuatu teknologi merupakan faktor penting yang menentukan penerimaan sesuatu teknologi baru dalam P & A ; P.2.6.2 Perspektif InovasiPerspektif Inovasi merujuk kepada ciri-ciri inovasi itu sendiri Dari segi kelebihan relatif dan kerumitan dalam penerimaannya.2.6.2 ( a ) Kelebihan RelatifKelebihan relatif ditakrifkan sebagai ciri-ciri inovasi yang dianggap lebih baik, mampu menggantikan teknologi yang sedia ada serta menjadi penyelesaian kepada perkara-perkara lain ( Rogers, 2003 ) . Tahap kelebihan relatif sesuatu inovasi sering dikaitkan dengan aspek keuntungan, prestij sosial atau faedah lain. Kelebihan relatif guru dijangka dapat meningkatkan tahap penerimaan sesuatu inovasi ( Moore & A ; Benbasat, 1991 ) . Rogers ( 2001 ) merumuskan bahawa kelebihan relatif sesuatu inovasi akan mempengaruhi kadar pendifusian secara positif. Butler dan Sellbom ( 2002 ) telah menjalankan kajian tinjauan ke atas 410 Pongo pygmaeus guru untuk mengenal pasti faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi guru menerima teknologi pengajaran dan kekangan-kekangan yang dihadapi semasa menerima sesuatu teknologi pengajaran. Dapatan kajian Butler dan Sellbom ( 2002 ) menunjukkan kelebihan teknologi itu sendiri menjadi faktor yang penting dalam membantu guru membuat keputusan menerima dan menggunakan sesuatu teknologi dalam P & A ; P.2.6.2 ( B ) KerumitanKerumitan dimaksudkan kesukaran untuk memahami dan menggunakan sesuatu inovasi teknologi pendidikan ( Rogers, 2003 ) . Sesuatu inovasi yang dianggap rumit untuk diguna Akan menghadapi pelbagai halangan dalam usaha untuk menggalakkan penerimaan dan proses pendifusian berbanding inovasi yang lebih mudah untuk dipelajari ( Moore & A ; Benbasat, 1991 ) . Oleh itu, Rogers ( 2003 ) merumuskan bahawa tahap kerumitan sesuatu inovasi akan memberikan kesan yang negatif ke atas tahap pendifusian sesuatu ino vasi. Dalam konteks kajian ini, kerumitan penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dikaji. Lin dan Jeffres ( 1998 ) mendapati wujud hubungan yang positif antara kemudahan penggunaan dan tingkah laku. Lin dan Jeffres ( 1998 ) mendapati kemudahan penggunaan menjadi faktor penentu penerimaan sesuatu inovasi. Ini menjelaskan bahawa sekiranya penggunaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif menjadi kompleks dan menyukarkan guru, ia Akan memberi kesan kepada tahap penerimaannya.2.6.3 Perspektif PersekitaranPerspektif Persekitaran pula merujuk kepada persepsi dan sokongan persekitaran dari segi sokongan dan Masa.2.6.3 ( a ) SokonganFarquhar dan Surry ( 1997 ) berpendapat gabungan faktor-faktor organisasi dan faktor-faktor penerimaan sesuatu inovasi oleh individu amat mempengaruhi proses pendifusian dan penggunaan sesuatu produk pendidikan. Farquhar dan Surry ( 1997 ) menyatakan bahawa kekurangan sokongan persekitaran boleh menjadi penghalang utama kejayaan sesuatu pendifusian inovasi. Groves dan Zemel ( 2000 ) mendapati aspek sokongan seperti latihan tentang cara penggunaan sesuatu teknologi, maklumat atau bahan-bahan yang boleh didapati, dan sokongan pihak pentadbiran adalah faktor-faktor yang penting yang mempengaruhi penggunaan teknologi dalam pendidikan. Morris ( 2001 ) pula mendapati kekurangan sokongan teknikal, tidak mempunyai kelengkapan yang mencukupi atau perisian dan kekurangan guru atau sokongan pentadbiran adalah antara faktor-faktor yang menghalang guru dalam mengaplikasikan teknologi pendidikan dalam proses P & A ; P. Dalam kajian lain, Askar dan Usluel ( 2005 ) telah menjalankan temu bual ke atas 27 orang guru untuk mengenal pasti faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi pendifusian Komputer di sekolah. Hasil temu bual menunjukkan faktor kekurangan sokongan dari segi penyediaan kemudahan perkakasan dan perisian, peruntukan bajet untuk membeli peralatan teknologi dan latihan kepada guru menjadi penghalang utama dalam mendifusikan teknologi komputer di sekolah.2.6.3 ( B ) MasaKajian oleh Seminoff dan Wepner ( 1997 ) menunjukkan bahawa guru kurang menggunakan teknologi dalam pengajaran kerana mereka tidak diberikan Masa untuk membuat persediaan. Dalam kajian ini, faktor Masa dikaji untuk melihat pengaruh masa dan penerimaan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif dalam pengajaran. Dalam kajian mengenai faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi penggunaan teknologi dan halangan-halangan untuk penggunaan teknologi, Groves dan Zemel ( 2000 ) mendapati masa interaksi memainkan peranan yang penting dalam mempengaruhi penggun aan sesuatu inovasi kerana guru memerlukan Masa untuk mempelajarinya. Norhayati ( 2000 ) telah menjalankan ke atas 15 orang guru yang mengajar mata pelajaran komputer dalam pendidikan. Dapatan kajian Norhayati menunjukkan guru menghadapi masalah kekangan masa untuk menyediakan bahan pengajaran yang berbantukan komputer kerana jadual waktu pengajaran yang padat dan dibebani dengan tugas-tugas lain. Braak ( 2001 ) yang telah mengkaji tentang faktor yang mempengaruhi penerimaan teknologi dalam kalangan guru sekolah menengah mendapati kekurangan masa merupakan antara faktor utama yang menyebabkan kurangnya penerimaan dan penggunaan teknologi Computer Mediated Communications ( CMC ) dalam P & A ; P. Oleh yang demikian, guru perlu diberi Masa yang mencukupi untuk membuat persediaan mengajar dengan menggunakan perisian kursus multimedia interaktif. Beban tugas guru yang mengajar mata pelajaran Matematik, Sains dan Teknologi perlu dikurangkan supaya mereka mempunyai Masa untuk meneroka inovasi baru dan mengaplikasikannya dalam P & A ; P ( Poe, 2000 ) .2.7 Penerimaan Inovasi dengan variabel Jantina, Umur, Pengalaman Mengajar dan Lokasi SekolahKajian oleh Norhayati ( 2000 ) ke atas guru-guru yang mengajar mata pelajaran komputer dalam pendidikan menunjukkan latar belakang guru amat mempengaruhi tahap penerimaan komputer dalam P & A ; P. Selain itu, Shahrinaz ( 2009 ) telah membuat kajian tentang penerimaan web log sebagai alat pembelajaran dalam kalangan pelajar universiti swasta. Beliau mendapati faktor latar belakang responden seperti jantina, umur dan pengalaman yang dijadikan sebagai variabel moderator memberi sumbangan kepada peningkatan dalam niat pelajar untuk menerima teknolo gi web log sebagai alat pembelajaran. Kajian oleh Chen ( 1986 ) tentang jantina dan komputer mendapati responden lelaki mempunyai sikap yang lebih positif berbanding responden perempuan. Dupagne dan Krendl ( 1992 ) juga menyatakan bahawa guru lelaki lebih bersikap positif tentang komputer jika dibandingkan dengan guru perempuan. Walau bagaimanapun, kajian oleh Abdul Wahab Kamaliah dan Hasrina ( 2006 ) tentang penerimaan teknologi pendidikan dalam kalangan guru sekolah menengah di negeri Pulau Pinang mendapati tidak terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan antara guru lelaki dan guru perempuan dalam penerimaan komputer dalam P & A ; P. Namun demikian, Phang ( 1998 ) telah menjalankan kajian penerimaan komputer dalam kalangan guru sekolah menengah dan mendapati terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan di antara umur guru dan penerimaan komputer. Walaupun guru yang lebih tua mempunyai sikap yang positif terhadap komputer tetapi tahap penerimaan komputer mereka adalah lebih rendah berbanding dengan guru yang muda. Manakala kajian oleh Abdul Wahab et Al. ( 2006 ) menunjukkan tidak terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan antara kategori umur Dari segi penerimaan teknologi pendidikan dalam proses P & A ; P. Kamarudin ( 1997 ) telah menjalankan kajian tentang literasi komputer dalam kalangan guru sekolah menengah di Daerah Kuala Muda/Yan, Kedah. Dapatan kajian beliau menunjukkan tidak terdapat perbezaan signifikan dalam kalangan guru yang mempunyai pengalaman mengajar yang berlainan. Manakala kajian oleh Ting ( 2004 ) tentang tahap penerimaan komputer dalam kalangan guru Kemahiran Hidup di SMK di Daerah Johor Bharu mendapati guru yang berpengalaman mengajar lebih lama mempunyai tahap penerimaan komputer yang lebih tinggi. Bagi mengukur variabel lokasi sekolah, dapatan kajian Kamarudin ( 1997 ) menunjukkan tidak terdapat perbezaan signifikan dalam tahap literasi di antara guru-guru yang bertugas di sekolah dalam bandar dan di luar bandar. Justeru, kajian oleh Siti Norazlina ( 2008 ) untuk mengenal pasti halangan yang dihadapi dalam penggunaan komputer dan ICT dalam kalangan guru SMK luar bandar di Daerah Kulai Jaya mendapati tahap penggunaan komputer dan ICT dalam kalangan guru masih sederhana. Dapatan menunjukkan kekurangan kemudahan merupakan halangan utama dalam penggunaan komputer dan ICT di sekolah luar band